Drilling-induced damage in uni-directional glass fiber reinforced plastic (UD-GFRP) composite laminates

Uni-directional glass fiber reinforced plastic (UD-FRP) composite materials are a feasible alternative to structural members that bear loads in only one direction. FRP composite materials have excellent properties in the direction of the fibers. Drilling- induced damage acts as an inhibitor to their application, as the holes act as stress concentration sites for failure under loading. The present study is an attempt to study the influence of drilling-induced damage on the residual tensile strength of uni-directional composite laminates and to propose a mathematical model correlating the residual strength with the drilling parameters. A finite element model (FEM) is also developed to study the drilling-induced damage in composite laminates.     

复合材料层压板钻孔分层激光超声检测方法

飞机复合材料结构钻孔分层的定位、定量检测是无损检测领域的难点之一,也是航空制造领域亟待解决的安全问题之一,激光超声检测技术是解决该问题的可能途径。试验验证利用激光超声检测复合材料钻孔分层的技术可行性。制备复合材料层压板钻孔试样,研究热弹性条件下脉冲激光在复合材料中产生超声波的宽频带特性,提取出满足检测灵敏度、分辨力要求并具有良好信噪比的超声信号;分析近孔边缘分层界面对声传播规律的影响,得出钻孔边缘分层缺陷的激光超声表征方法;采用脉冲反射法、透射法对复合材料钻孔试样进行激光超声C扫描检测,获得钻孔分层缺陷的形貌、尺寸和位置特征。研究结果表明,激光超声检测技术是解决飞机复合材料结构钻孔分层检测问题的有效手段。     

Comparison between response surface methodology and radial basis function network for core-center drill in drilling composite materials

Drilling using twist drill is the most frequently used secondary machining for fiber-reinforced composite laminates and delamination is the most important concern during drilling. The drill design and drilling parameters associated with thrust distribution on the drilling-induced delamination are presented. The core-center drill has been found to be more advantageous than the core drill in reference and practice experiences. Response surface methodology (RSM) is a very practical, economical, and useful tool for the modeling and analysis of experimental results using polynomials as local approximations to the true input/output relationship. Due to the radial basis function network’s (RBFN) fast learning speed, simple structure, local tuning, and global generalization power, researchers in the field of manufacturing engineering have been using RBFN in nonlinear manufacturing studies. The present paper compares these two techniques using various drilling parameters (diameter ratio, feed rate, and spindle speed) to predict the thrust force for a core-center drill in drilling composite materials. The obtained results indicated that RBFN is a practical and an effective way for the evaluation of drilling-induced thrust force.     

碳纤维复合材料孔加工研究现状

根据碳纤维复合材料的特性和制造加工中存在的问题,综述了碳纤维复合材料孔加工时加工工艺、钻头几何参数及其材料、机床振动、材料制备缺陷等因素对钻削加工损伤(尤其是分层损伤)的影响和抑制方法、钻削建模与仿真以及叠层孔加工等方面的研究最新进展,重点关注了钻削诱导的分层损伤形成机理以及一些特殊工艺,如振动辅助钻削、螺旋铣削孔加工、磁性胶体垫板孔加工技术和高速钻削技术等对碳纤维复合材料孔加工质量改善效果。     

Experimental characterization and finite element modeling of critical thrust force in cfrp drilling

Composite laminates are used in many applications in ae-rospace/defense industries due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance properties. In general, composite materials are hard-to-machine materials which exhibit low drilling efficiency and drilling-induced delamination damage at exit. Hence, it is important to understand the drilling processes for composite materials. This article presents a comprehensive study involving experimental characterization of drilling process to understand the cutting mechanism and relative effect of cutting parameters on delamination during drilling of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP). Thrust force and torque data are acquired for analyzing the cutting mechanism, initiation and propagation of delamination, and identification of critical thrust force below which no damage occurs. An FE model for prediction of critical thrust force has been developed and validated with experimental results. A [0/90] composite laminate is modeled simulating the last two plies in exit condition and a thin interface layer is inserted in between the plies to capture delamination extent. The tool geometry is modeled as “rigid body” with geometric features of twist drill used in experiments. The tool is indented on the workpiece to simulated tool feeding action into the workpiece. The FE model predicts the critical thrust force within 5% of the experimentally determined mean value.     

A hybrid of theory and numerical simulation research for virtual rolling of double-groove ball rings

The analytical thermal model of the grinding process is an important tool for predicting temperature to minimize workpiece thermal damage while improving process efficiency. As more and more numerical models are developed for the grinding temperature research, the established analytical model can be validated with numerical method. A new analytical thermal model of arc moving heat source for rectangular workpiece is deduced, and the temperature distribution results of this analytical model are compared with a validated numerical model. A principle based on the influences of parameters on the analytical and numerical results is proposed for comparing the analytical and numerical model. The comparison result shows that the temperature distribution results agree well on the contact surface, and there are few errors on the finished surface; the significant errors only appear at the boundary between different areas. The established analytical model is validated by the comparison result and can be used for further research about the heat transfer in surface grinding by cup wheel.     

高速动车组斜齿轮的齿根裂纹萌生寿命数值计算

为分析高速动车组斜齿轮的齿根裂纹萌生寿命,采用UG建模软件建立了斜齿轮副的三维模型,并通过ABAQUS软件确定了裂纹萌生位置。基于疲劳损伤累积理论,对试验齿轮分别采用名义应力法和局部应力应变法模拟计算出裂纹萌生寿命;进行了高频疲劳试验,得到了裂纹萌生寿命,通过对比模拟结果与试验结果,确定了最佳损伤模型,计算得出了斜齿轮齿根的裂纹萌生寿命。分析了载荷、表面粗糙度、残余应力、齿顶修缘等因素对裂纹萌生寿命的影响规律。研究结果表明,载荷及表面粗糙度对裂纹萌生寿命的影响比较显著;裂纹萌生寿命随着残余压应力的增大而延长;适当的修形可延长斜齿轮裂纹萌生寿命。     

Effects of noise on transfer entropy estimation for damage detection

Recent research has shown that transfer entropy can be effectively employed as a feature for nonlinearity detection and linear damage identification. However, computation of transfer entropy requires the estimation of non-parametric one-, two-, and three-dimensional probability density functions. Therefore, small random perturbations caused by noise could lead to large variances in transfer entropy estimates. In this paper, we evaluate the effect of input and output noise on estimation of transfer entropy, and how noise, in turn, affects the capability of transfer entropy as a damage detector in a structural health monitoring (SHM) application. A damage index from the transfer entropy is computed from the response of a simulated multi-degree-of-freedom oscillator subject to linear and nonlinear stiffness changes in the presence of various noise influences. Damage indices are also evaluated for an experimental frame structure. Based on the computational study, we find that input noise lessens the sensitivity of the damage feature by diminishing the ability of the non-parametric density estimators to produce low variance transfer entropy estimations. Despite this reduced capability, an input that has no deterministic component can still detect a 25% stiffness loss in the computational example employed. Output noise has a greater impact on the feature's ability to accurately estimate the transfer entropy, such that a signal-to-noise threshold of approximately 30 dB leads to a greatly diminished ability to detect damage. Despite these noise effects, all damage cases tested on an experimental frame structure were detectable using the transfer entropy damage index.     

Evaluation of the drilling-induced delamination of compound core-special drills using response surface methodology based on the Taguchi method

The hole-making process in composite parts today is required to be more accurate and efficient, which can affect the in-service life and decrease manufacturing cost. Thus understanding the key factors affecting their qualities is of vital importance to develop effective machining strategies. To this end, this study proposes a model with response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Taguchi method to evaluate the influence of drilling parameters on delamination by compound core-special drills. The model with RSM includes three steps: (1) design and experiments, (2) response surface modeling through regression, and (3) optimization. A series of experiments were conducted to test the proposed model. It was found that the key factors affecting drilling-induced delamination include: cutting velocity ratio, feed rate, inner drill type, and inner drill diameter. Therefore, some experimental implications can be proposed accordingly.     

3D Progressive Damage Based Macro-Mechanical FE Simulation of Machining Unidirectional FRP Composite

Finite element(FE) simulation is a powerful tool for investigating the mechanism of machining fiber?reinforced polymer composite(FRP). However in existing FE machining simulation works,the two?dimensional(2 D) progressive damage models only describe material behavior in plane stress,while the three?dimensional(3 D) damage models always assume an instantaneous sti ness reduction pattern. So the chip formation mechanism of FRP under machin?ing is not fully analyzed in general stress state. A 3 D macro?mechanical based FE simulation model was developed for the machining of unidirectional glass fiber reinforced plastic. An energy based 3 D progressive damage model was proposed for damage evolution and continuous sti ness degradation. The damage model was implemented for the Hashin?type criterion and Maximum stress criterion. The influences of the failure criterion and fracture energy dissipa?tion on the simulation results were studied. The simulated chip shapes,cutting forces and sub?surface damages were verified by those obtained in the reference experiment. The simulation results also show consistency with previous 2 D FE models in the reference. The proposed research provides a model for simulating FRP material behavior and the machining process in 3 D stress state.     

Thrust force and delamination of core-saw drill during drilling of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP)

Due to the inherent anisotropy and inhomogeneous nature of polymer-based composite materials, their cutting mechanism differs in many respects from conventional metallic materials. Amongst all machining operations, drilling using a twist drill is the most commonly applied method for generating holes for riveting and fastening structural assemblies. Most of the previous research correlates the drill geometry and feed rate to thrust force and delamination on the performance of a twist drill. The Taguchi method has been used to solve many engineering problems. In this investigation, drilling-induced thrust force and delamination by core-saw drill during drilling CFRP laminates were selected as quality character factors to optimize the drilling parameters to obtain the smaller-the-better characteristics. For thrust force and delamination quality character factors, the optimum conditions in drilling were also A₁B₁C₃, (i.e., diameter ratio = 0.55, feed rate = 8 mm/min and spindle speed = 1,200 rpm).     

裂纹梁的相似特性及模型误差分析

固有频率是构造损伤识别指标的常用物理量,它对损伤的敏感性有些低,易受模型误差的干扰。文中应用相似原理,分析得到裂纹梁的动力相似准则,由此找出可引起无量纲固有频率类损伤识别指标变化的相关物理量．有限元仿真结果验证了理论推导的结论。使用这类损伤识别指标的损伤检测方法,在建立精确有限元模型时,可以忽略不影响损伤识别结果的物理量,降低建模难度,实用性强。文中还分析模型误差对无量纲固有频率类损伤识别指标的影响规律。     

Prediction of thrust force of step drill in drilling composite material by Taguchi method and radial basis function network

Among material secondary machining, drilling is the most frequently applied factor to composites needing structure joining. Drill geometry is considered the most important factor that affects drill performance. A major concern in drilling of composite materials is the delamination that occurs in the exit as well as in the entrance planes. The delamination damage caused by the tool thrust is known as one of the major concerns during the drilling process. The thrust force of step drill with drilling parameters (step angle, stage ratio, feedrate and spindle speed) in drilling carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) laminates were experimentally investigated in this study. The experimental results indicate that the step angle, stage ratio, and feedrate are the most significant factors affecting the overall performance. The optimal combinations, such as A₂B₂C₁D₃ (i.e., step angle = 100 ° stage ratio = 0.4 mm/mm, feedrate = 0.01 mm/rev and spindle speed = 1,200 rpm), were used under the adopted drilling condition. An experimental approach to the prediction of thrust force produced by step drill using linear regression analysis of experiments and radial basis function network (RBFN) were proposed in this study. In the confirmation tests, RBFN (errors within 0.3%) has been shown to be a better predictive model than multi-variable linear regression analysis (errors within 28%) for quantitative prediction of drilling-induced thrust force in drilling of composite material.     

Distinguishing between sensor fault, structural damage, and environmental or operational effects in structural health monitoring

Discrimination between three different sources of variability in a vibration-based structural health monitoring system is investigated: environmental or operational effects, sensor faults, and structural damage. Separating the environmental or operational effects from the other two is based on the assumption that measurements under different environmental or operational conditions are included in the training data. Distinguishing between sensor fault and structural damage utilizes the fact that the sensor faults are local, while structural damage is global. By localizing the change to a sensor which is then removed from the network, the two different influences can be separated. The sensor network is modelled as a Gaussian process and the generalized likelihood ratio test (GLRT) is then used to detect and localize a change in the system. A numerical and an experimental study are performed to validate the proposed method.     

含接触的多孔多裂纹结构应力强度因子分析

多孔多裂纹结构的损伤是老龄飞机和许多工程结构中存在的一种典型损伤形式,它严重影响着结构的完整性和使用安全。因此,研究多孔多裂纹结构的损伤容限问题,特别是结构的断裂特性,具有重要的工程意义和很高的实用价值。本文主要考虑销钉与结构间的接触问题,应用有限元方法,建立合理的计算模型,计算了多孔多裂纹结构的应力强度因子。通过大量计算,给出了典型多孔多裂纹结构应力强度因子的计算结果曲线,分析其相互影响规律及破坏特性。计算结果和结论可作为该类结构损伤容限设计的参考依据。     

结构疲劳损伤的声发射检测可靠性研究

针对声发射技术对金属结构损伤的检测可靠性问题,以金属疲劳裂纹检测试验为基础,利用声发射特征参数的趋势分析和关联分析法,首先根据贝叶斯理论,计算了声发射对一定长度疲劳裂纹的检测概率;其次,研究了检测结构起裂时对应声发射幅度参数的阈值及其对损伤判断的影响。该研究可为减少声发射检测中的金属疲劳损伤信号误判,提高检测效率,以及确定复杂航空结构疲劳寿命提供支持。     

动力蓄电池包挤压失效仿真与实验

为提高动力蓄电池包挤压仿真的精度,将延性损伤准则引入到有限元仿真,通过单轴拉伸试验、纯剪切试验与缺口件拉伸试验与有限元仿真,获得了某动力蓄电池包结构所用材料6061-T6铝合金的延性损伤参数。型材三点弯曲试验、动力蓄电池包挤压试验与有限元仿真的结果表明：输入延性损伤参数的有限元仿真结果与试验结果误差小,能较为准确地模拟铝合金损伤对结构承载性能的影响;不考虑材料失效的结果与试验结果误差较大。     

基于能量密度法预测微动疲劳寿命

通过接触界面的应力应变场和临界平面法计算了能量密度损伤参数,结合疲劳试验得到了能量密度损伤参数-寿命关系曲线中的材料常数,建立了LZ50钢微动疲劳寿命的预测公式。根据裂纹萌生寿命预测效果,将Chen损伤值作为裂纹萌生控制参数。分析了摩擦因数、微动桥半径、循环载荷和微动桥压力对LZ50车轴钢的Chen损伤值的影响,以及CRH2型动车组空心车轴裂纹萌生的位置及寿命。     

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF AN AIRCRAFT JOINT

A major concern with ageing aircraft is the deterioration of structural components in the form of fatigue cracks at fastener holes, loose rivets and debonding of joints. These faults in conjunction with corrosion can lead to multiple-site damage and pose a hazard to flight. Developing a simple vibration-based method of damage detection for monitoring ageing structures is considered in this paper. The method is intended to detect damage during operation of the vehicle before the damage can propagate and cause catastrophic failure of aircraft components. It is typical that only a limited number of sensors could be used on the structure and damage can occur anywhere on the surface or inside the structure. The research performed was to investigate use of the chirp vibration responses of an aircraft wing tip to detect, locate and approximately quantify damage. The technique uses four piezoelectric patches alternatively as actuators and sensors to send and receive vibration diagnostic signals.Loosening of selected screws simulated damage to the wing tip. The results obtained from the testing led to the concept of a sensor tape to detect damage at joints in an aircraft structure.     

Evaluation of a novel approach to a delamination factor after drilling composite laminates using a core–saw drill

Drilling is the most commonly applied method for hole making of fiber-reinforced materials owing to the need for structure joining. Delamination is the most common defect during drilling because of the heterogeneity of both the fibers and the matrix. The delamination, in general, is an irregular shape and size, containing long and fine breaks and cracks at the exit of the drilled hole, especially in the drilling of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP). On the other hand, a core–saw drill is designed to reduce the threat of chip removal in drilling composite materials. Since the thrust force of core–saw drill is distributed toward the periphery, the core–saw drill allows a larger critical thrust force than the twist drill at the onset of delamination when drilling composite materials. The aim of this paper is to present a novel approach of the equivalent delamination factor (F _ed) to characterize drilling-induced delamination using a core–saw drill and compare it with the adjusted delamination factor (F _da) and the conventional delamination factor (F _a). The experimental results indicated that the F _ed obtained is considered suitable for characterizing delamination at the exit of a hole after drilling CFRP.