Iron release from corroded iron pipes in drinking water distribution systems: effect of dissolved oxygen

Iron release from corroded iron pipes is the principal cause of "colored water" problems in drinking water distribution systems. The corrosion scales present in corroded iron pipes restrict the flow of water, and can also deteriorate the water quality. This research was focused on understanding the effect of dissolved oxygen (DO), a key water quality parameter, on iron release from the old corroded iron pipes. Corrosion scales from 70-year-old galvanized iron pipe were characterized as porous deposits of Fe(III) phases (goethite (alpha-FeOOH), magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)), and maghemite (alpha-Fe(2)O(3))) with a shell-like, dense layer near the top of the scales. High concentrations of readily soluble Fe(II) content was present inside the scales. Iron release from these corroded pipes was investigated for both flow and stagnant water conditions. Our studies confirmed that iron was released to bulk water primarily in the ferrous form. When DO was present in water, higher amounts of iron release was observed during stagnation in comparison to flowing water conditions. Additionally, it was found that increasing the DO concentration in water during stagnation reduced the amount of iron release. Our studies substantiate that increasing the concentration of oxidants in water and maintaining flowing conditions can reduce the amount of iron release from corroded iron pipes. Based on our studies, it is proposed that iron is released from corroded iron pipes by dissolution of corrosion scales, and that the microstructure and composition of corrosion scales are important parameters that can influence the amount of iron released from such systems.     

Morphological and physicochemical characteristics of iron corrosion scales formed under different water source histories in a drinking water distribution system

The corrosion scales on iron pipes could have great impact on the water quality in drinking water distribution systems (DWDS). Unstable and less protective corrosion scale is one of the main factors causing “discolored water” issues when quality of water entering into distribution system changed significantly. The morphological and physicochemical characteristics of corrosion scales formed under different source water histories in duration of about two decades were systematically investigated in this work. Thick corrosion scales or densely distributed corrosion tubercles were mostly found in pipes transporting surface water, but thin corrosion scales and hollow tubercles were mostly discovered in pipes transporting groundwater. Magnetite and goethite were main constituents of iron corrosion products, but the mass ratio of magnetite/goethite (M/G) was significantly different depending on the corrosion scale structure and water source conditions. Thick corrosion scales and hard shell of tubercles had much higher M/G ratio (>1.0), while the thin corrosion scales had no magnetite detected or with much lower M/G ratio. The M/G ratio could be used to identify the characteristics and evaluate the performances of corrosion scales formed under different water conditions. Compared with the pipes transporting ground water, the pipes transporting surface water were more seriously corroded and could be in a relatively more active corrosion status all the time, which was implicated by relatively higher siderite, green rust and total iron contents in their corrosion scales. Higher content of unstable ferric components such as γ-FeOOH, β-FeOOH and amorphous iron oxide existed in corrosion scales of pipes receiving groundwater which was less corroded. Corrosion scales on groundwater pipes with low magnetite content had higher surface area and thus possibly higher sorption capacity. The primary trace inorganic elements in corrosion products were Br and heavy metals. Corrosion products obtained from pipes transporting groundwater had higher levels of Br, Ti, Ba, Cu, Sr, V, Cr, La, Pb and As.     

海水侵蚀下钢筋混凝土梁斜截面承载力试验研究

港口、码头、混凝土近海平台等海工结构物长期暴露在恶劣的环境中。外部腐蚀介质的影响会降低其安全性、耐久性和可靠性。尤其海水浪溅区的钢筋混凝土结构物受海水腐蚀更易遭受破坏 ,造成的损失也非常巨大。结构的安全性、耐久性和可靠性日益成为人们研究的重要课题。本文通过 15根钢筋混凝土试验梁在多循环人工海水侵蚀后进行的斜截面承载力试验 ,研究了钢筋混凝土梁在遭受腐蚀的不同时间段内梁的斜截面承载力的变化情况。提出了不同干湿循环条件下几种不同配比的钢筋混凝土梁的力学性能变化规律。     

Effect of pipe corrosion scales on chlorine dioxide consumption in drinking water distribution systems

Previous studies showed that temperature and total organic carbon in drinking water would cause chlorine dioxide (ClO(2)) loss in a water distribution system and affect the efficiency of ClO(2) for Legionella control. However, among the various causes of ClO(2) loss in a drinking water distribution system, the loss of disinfectant due to the reaction with corrosion scales has not been studied in detail. In this study, the corrosion scales from a galvanized iron pipe and a copper pipe that have been in service for more than 10 years were characterized by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The impact of these corrosion scale materials on ClO(2) decay was investigated in de-ionized water at 25 and 45 degrees C in a batch reactor with floating glass cover. ClO(2) decay was also investigated in a specially designed reactor made from the iron and copper pipes to obtain more realistic reaction rate data. Goethite (alpha-FeOOH) and magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)) were identified as the main components of iron corrosion scale. Cuprite (Cu(2)O) was identified as the major component of copper corrosion scale. The reaction rate of ClO(2) with both iron and copper oxides followed a first-order kinetics. First-order decay rate constants for ClO(2) reactions with iron corrosion scales obtained from the used service pipe and in the iron pipe reactor itself ranged from 0.025 to 0.083 min(-1). The decay rate constant for ClO(2) with Cu(2)O powder and in the copper pipe reactor was much smaller and it ranged from 0.0052 to 0.0062 min(-1). Based on these results, it can be concluded that the corrosion scale will cause much more significant ClO(2) loss in corroded iron pipes of the distribution system than the total organic carbon that may be present in finished water.     

Corrosion in drinking water pipes: the importance of green rusts

Complex crystallographic composition of the corrosion products is studied by diffraction methods and results obtained after different pre-treatment of samples are compared. The green rusts are found to be much more abundant in corrosion scales than it has been assumed so far. The characteristic and crystallographic composition of corrosion scales and deposits suspended in steady waters were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The necessity of the examination of corrosion products in the wet conditions is indicated. The drying of the samples before analysis is shown to substantially change the crystallographic phases originally present in corrosion products. On sample drying the unstable green rusts is converted into more stable phases such as goethite and lepidocrocite, while the content of magnetite and siderite decreases. Three types of green rusts in wet materials sampled from tubercles are identified. Unexpectedly, in almost all corrosion scale samples significant amounts of the least stable green rust in chloride form was detected. Analysis of corrosion products suspended in steady water, which remained between tubercles and possibly in their interiors, revealed complex crystallographic composition of the sampled material. Goethite, lepidocrocite and magnetite as well as low amounts of siderite and quartz were present in all samples. Six different forms of green rusts were identified in the deposits separated from steady waters and the most abundant was carbonate green rust GR(CO₃²⁻)(I).     

预应力与非预应力AFRP加固腐蚀钢筋混凝土梁疲劳性能研究

对非预应力芳纶布(AFRP)加固和带永久锚具的预应力AFRP加固锈蚀钢筋混凝土梁的疲劳性能进行研究。通过疲劳试验,探讨预应力水平和钢筋锈蚀程度对加固梁疲劳破坏机制、疲劳寿命、挠度等的影响。试验结果表明:预应力AFRP与非预应力加固梁的疲劳破坏机制相同,都为纵筋的疲劳断裂;预应力AFRP加固锈蚀混凝土梁的抗疲劳特性明显优于非预应力加固梁;预应力水平越高,中度腐蚀梁加固后疲劳寿命越高;锈蚀率越高,梁的疲劳寿命越低,重度锈蚀梁疲劳寿命的降低幅度比中度锈蚀梁更明显。通过与光面钢筋对比,获得锈蚀纵筋的等效疲劳切口系数K f。结果表明,钢筋锈蚀率的增加会导致K f增大,从而导致锈蚀梁疲劳寿命明显降低。基于试验结果,建立了预应力AFRP加固中度腐蚀钢筋混凝土梁疲劳寿命的计算公式,供桥梁加固设计参考。     

一般大气环境锈蚀钢柱抗震性能试验与数值分析

为研究锈蚀对钢柱抗震性能的影响,对20个钢板试件和7个H型钢柱试件进行一般大气环境加速腐蚀试验。通过锈蚀钢板单调拉伸与低周往复加载试验研究锈蚀钢板单调与循环加载性能的差异性,揭示锈蚀钢材强度、延性退化规律,建立锈蚀钢材循环本构模型;通过锈蚀H型钢柱拟静力试验,研究锈蚀钢柱在地震作用下的损伤过程、破坏形态及性能退化规律,结果表明:锈蚀导致柱脚塑性范围更加集中,并加快屈曲发展,从而引起承载力、刚度、延性和耗能能力显著退化,且较大的轴压比将进一步加快钢柱破坏过程。最后,提出考虑锈蚀程度的损伤钢柱抗震性能数值模拟方法,并进行参数化扩展分析,研究均匀/非均匀锈蚀程度、锈蚀分布范围等影响因素对H型钢柱抗震性能的影响规律,结果表明:非均匀锈蚀导致钢柱抗震性能退化更加严重,且当钢柱翼缘或柱脚发生锈蚀时,抗震性能退化更为显著。     

Degradation of trichloronitromethane by iron water main corrosion products

Halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) may undergo reduction reactions at the corroded pipe wall in drinking water distribution systems consisting of cast or ductile iron pipe. Iron pipe corrosion products were obtained from several locations within two drinking water distribution systems. Crystalline-phase composition of freeze-dried corrosion solids was analyzed using X-ray diffraction, and ferrous and ferric iron contents were determined via multiple extraction methods. Batch experiments demonstrated that trichloronitromethane (TCNM), a non-regulated DBP, is rapidly reduced in the presence of pipe corrosion solids and that dissolved oxygen (DO) slows the reaction. The water-soluble iron content of the pipe solids is the best predictor of TCNM reaction rate constant. These results indicate that highly reactive DBPs that are able to compete with oxygen and residual disinfectant for ferrous iron may be attenuated via abiotic reduction in drinking water distribution systems.     

Coliform culturability in over- versus undersaturated drinking waters

The culturability of Escherichia coli in undersaturated drinking water with respect to CaCO3 (corrosive water) or in oversaturated water (non-corrosive water) was tested in different reactors: glass flasks (batch, "non-reactive" wall); glass reactors (chemostat, "non-reactive" wall) versus a corroded cast iron Propella reactor (chemostat, "reactive" wall) and a 15-year-old distribution system pilot (chemostat, "reactive" wall with 1% corroded cast iron and 99% cement-lined cast iron). The E. coli in E. coli-spiked drinking water was not able to maintain its culturability and colonize the experimental systems. It appears from our results that the optimal pH for maintaining E. coli culturability was around 8.2 or higher. However, in reactors with a reactive wall (corroded cast iron), the decline in E. coli culturability was slower when the pH was adjusted to 7.9 or 7.7 (i.e. a reactor fed with corrosive water; pHpHs). We tentatively deduce that corrosion products coming from chemical reactions driven by corrosive waters on the pipe wall improve E. coli culturability.     

Modeling corroded section configuration of steel bar in concrete structure

Predicting concrete cover cracking due to steel bar corrosion in concrete is an important problem for durability of reinforced concrete structures. A basic question in the prediction is distribution of corroded part of steel bar section. The corrosion products have characteristic of volume expansions; that leads to expansive pressure in the concrete. At present, an assumption of uniform corroded pattern along the perimeter of the steel bar has been adopted for analyzing the effect of corrosion products expansion and building the model. In this paper, the steel bars in concrete were corroded under artificial climate environment for accelerated aging. The propagation of the corrosion products layer between steel bar and concrete and its microstructure are discussed; and then, the corrosion products distribution called corrosion products layer on the steel bar in concrete is revealed. The distribution before corrosion cracking; the corrosion products distribute on the half circumference of the steel bar facing the concrete cover only, and the distribution has the shape of a half ellipse. Because of expansive characteristic of corrosion products, the distribution pattern of the corroded part of the steel bar section is proportional to the distribution of the corrosion products layer. Therefore, the configuration model of corroded steel bar section is built.     

Exploring the impact of chloride-induced corrosion on seismic damage limit states and residual capacity of reinforced concrete structures

A non-linear finite element (FE) framework for time-dependent capacity assessment of corroded rectangular reinforced concrete (RC) columns is developed. The proposed non-linear FE model includes the impact of corrosion on inelastic buckling and low-cycle fatigue degradation of longitudinal reinforcement. The proposed non-linear FE model is validated against a set of experimental data and then extended to evaluate the impact of corrosion on damage limit states to be used in seismic performance and evaluation of corroded structures. This is done through a parametric study on hypothetical RC columns, varied in axial force ratios, mass loss ratios, cover crack widths and confinement levels. Moreover, the application of the proposed model in seismic collapse capacity assessment of corroded structures is shown through non-linear dynamic analyses of prototype columns. Results show that, depending on the axial force ratio, corrosion changes the failure mechanism of the columns. The results of this study suggest that in seismic fragility analysis of corroded structures, the damage limit states should be considered as time-variant parameters.     

锈蚀钢筋混凝土墙体压弯承载力试验研究

考虑钢筋种类、混凝土强度、钢筋锈蚀率因素,对10个锈蚀钢筋混凝土墙体试件进行了压弯承载力试验研究。结果表明:钢筋锈蚀对墙体的承载力和挠度均有不同程度的影响;锈蚀钢筋混凝土墙体的承载力计算仍可近似采用平截面假定,但需引入协同工作系数考虑锈蚀钢筋与混凝土黏结滑移的影响;给出了锈蚀钢筋混凝土墙体的压弯承载力计算公式,并通过与试验结果比较,验证了计算公式的适用性。     

Effects of blending of desalinated water with treated surface drinking water on copper and lead release

This study examined effects of desalinated water on the corrosion of and metal release from copper and lead-containing materials. A jar test protocol was employed to examine metal release from copper and lead-tin coupons exposed to water chemistries with varying blending ratios of desalinated water, alkalinities, pHs and orthophosphate levels. Increasing fractions of desalinated water in the blends resulted in non-monotonic changes of copper and lead release, with generally lower metal concentrations in the presence of desalinated water, especially when its contribution increased from 80% to 100%. SEM examination showed that the increased fractions of desalinated water were associated with pronounced changes of the morphology of the corrosion scales, likely due to the influence of natural organic matter. This hypothesis was corroborated by the existence of correlations between changes of the ζ-potential of representative minerals (malachite and hydrocerussite) and metal release. For practical applications, maintaining pH at 7.8 and adding 1 mg/L orthophosphate as PO₄ were concluded to be adequate to decrease copper and lead release. Lower alkalinity of desalinated water was beneficial for blends containing 50% or more desalinated water.     

钢筋锈蚀对混凝土梁抗剪性能的影响

钢筋锈蚀是混凝土构件主要病害之一。与梁底纵筋相比,箍筋易首先腐蚀,且腐蚀程度更为严重。本文在研究锈蚀RC构件抗剪承载力衰减模型的基础上,借助MonteCarlo模拟,分析了钢筋锈蚀对RC梁抗剪承载力的影响。结果表明,箍筋的锈蚀率明显大于纵筋,构件抗剪失效的可能性大大增加,对梁的安全性和耐久性具有潜在危害。     

防雷接地装置的腐蚀原因及防腐措施

讨论了接地装置腐蚀的危害性,接地装置易发生腐蚀的环境,和易发生腐蚀的部位;分析了接地装置腐蚀的原因、机理;并提出了防止接地装置(接地极和引下线)腐蚀的具体措施.     

砂浆中细骨料携带氯离子腐蚀机理与强度规律

研究了细骨料携带氯离子的砂浆中,氯离子结合率及其扩散机理,以及钢筋锈蚀参数的变化规律.结果表明,氯离子稳定结合率约60%,细骨料中氯离子是由砂表面向水泥凝胶中逐渐扩散,水化初期的扩散包括水化和渗透两个方面;砂浆试件中的钢筋在28 d之前存在一个加速锈蚀阶段.另外,从宏观强度的角度进一步验证了细骨料携带氯离子的腐蚀机理.     

Addressing corrosion control and valve tuberculation in a water distribution system supplied by a silica-laden groundwater

Metal corrosion and valve tuberculation within a water distribution system supplied by groundwater containing 52 mg/L silica were studied using a corrosion test rack installed within a residence to determine the effectiveness of phosphate-based (PB) and silica-based (SB) corrosion inhibitor (CI). Results indicated that internal corrosion control based on the use of phosphate-based or silica-based CIs did not significantly decrease iron, lead, or copper corrosion rates, and in one case, caused a negative impact on copper corrosion rate. Evaluations of metal coupons using scanning electron microscopy, electron dispersive X-ray analysis, and X-ray photoelectron spectrophotometry confirmed these findings. Since CI failed to reduce corrosion rates, valve tuberculation within the water system could not be controlled. Consequently, a valve replacement plan was developed in place of an internal corrosion control method using CIs. An opinion of probable replacement cost for 200 tuberculated valves approximated $3.3 million expended over 20 years.     

Impact of particles on sediment accumulation in a drinking water distribution system

Discolouration of drinking water is one of the main reasons customers complain to their water company. Though corrosion of cast iron is often seen as the main source for this problem, the particles originating from the treatment plant play an important and potentially dominant role in the generation of a discolouration risk in drinking water distribution systems. To investigate this thesis a study was performed in a drinking water distribution system. In two similar isolated network areas the effect of particles on discolouration risk was studied with particle counting, the Resuspension Potential Method (RPM) and assessment of the total accumulated sediment. In the ‘Control Area’, supplied with normal drinking water, the discolouration risk was regenerated within 1.5 year. In the ‘Research Area’, supplied with particle-free water, this will take 10-15 years. An obvious remedy for controlling the discolouration risk is to improve the treatment with respect to the short peaks that are caused by particle breakthrough.     

基于长度表征不均匀锈蚀钢筋力学性能研究

为研究锈蚀钢筋沿长度方向的锈蚀率变化规律及其对锈蚀钢筋力学性能的影响,对混凝土板中钢筋进行了电化学加速锈蚀试验.结果表明:通过控制混凝土密实度及浸泡方式,采用电化学加速锈蚀试验,可以得到沿截面及长度方向不均匀锈蚀的钢筋.锈蚀钢筋屈服荷载、极限荷载与微段最大锈蚀率有较大的相关性,且沿长度方向不均匀锈蚀参数随其平均质量损失率增加而增大.用微段最大锈蚀率计算得到的锈蚀钢筋屈服荷载预测值与试验值较为接近,可为相关研究提供参考.     

Effect of degree of corrosion on the properties of reinforcing steel bars

This paper reports results of a study conducted to assess the effect of degree of corrosion of reinforcing steel bars on their mechanical properties. Reinforcing steel bars, 6 and 12 mm in diameter, that were corroded in reinforced concrete specimens were removed and tested in tension. Results indicated that the level of reinforcement corrosion does not influence the tensile strength of steel bars, calculated on the actual area of cross-section. However, when the nominal diameter is utilized in the calculation, the tensile strength is less than the ASTM A 615 requirement of 600 MPa when the degree of corrosion was 11 and 24% for 6- and 12-mm diameter steel bars, respectively. Furthermore, reinforcing steel bars with more than 12% corrosion indicates a brittle failure.