Long-term flow rates and biomat zone hydrology in soil columns receiving septic tank effluent

Soil absorption systems (SAS) are used commonly to treat and disperse septic tank effluent (STE). SAS can hydraulically fail as a result of the low permeable biomat zone that develops on the infiltrative surface. The objectives of this experiment were to compare the hydraulic properties of biomats grown in soils of different textures, to investigate the long-term acceptance rates (LTAR) from prolonged application of STE, and to assess if soils were of major importance in determining LTAR. The STE was applied to repacked sand, Oxisol and Vertisol soil columns over a period of 16 months, at equivalent hydraulic loading rates of 50, 35 and 8L/m(2)/d, respectively. Infiltration rates, soil matric potentials, and biomat hydraulic properties were measured either directly from the soil columns or calculated using established soil physics theory. Biomats 1 to 2 cm thick developed in all soils columns with hydraulic resistances of 27 to 39 d. These biomats reduced a 4 order of magnitude variation in saturated hydraulic conductivity (K(s)) between the soils to a one order of magnitude variation in LTAR. A relationship between biomat resistance and organic loading rate was observed in all soils. Saturated hydraulic conductivity influenced the rate and extent of biomat development. However, once the biomat was established, the LTAR was governed by the resistance of the biomat and the sub-biomat soil unsaturated flow regime induced by the biomat. Results show that whilst initial soil K(s) is likely to be important in the establishment of the biomat zone in a trench, LTAR is determined by the biomat resistance and the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity, not the K(s) of a soil. The results call into question the commonly used approach of basing the LTAR, and ultimately trench length in SAS, on the initial K(s) of soils.     

Removal of the endocrine disrupter nonylphenol and its estrogenic activity in sludge treatment processes

The estrogenic compound nonylphenol (NP) is frequently found in sludge from sewage treatment works. Hence, when sewage sludge is spread on the land, endocrine-disrupting compounds may get into the soil. The goal of this study was to investigate the extent to which aerobic mesophilic treatment in continuous reactors permits the removal of NP from sludge and how this process may be useful for treating anaerobically stabilised sludge. We also report on the behaviour of NP during the anaerobic treatment of sludge. The reduction in sludge estrogenic activity observed in the different types of treatment, as measured using estrogen-responsive reporter cells lines (MELN bioassay), was compared with NP removal rates. Under anaerobic conditions, no degradation of NP and its estrogenic activity was observed. Indeed, an accumulation of the compound occurred. In contrast, high removal of NP was achieved in aerobic conditions as well as in aerobic Post-treatment of anaerobically pre-digested sludge, with a concomitant reduction of the sludge's estrogenic potency.     

Fate of effluent organic matter and DBP precursors in an effluent-dominated river: A case study of wastewater impact on downstream water quality

The impact of treated wastewater discharges on downstream water quality was evaluated in an effluent-dominated stream in the Southwest USA. The fate and transport of effluent organic matter (EfOM) and disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors was studied. Nitrification and biodegradation were important mechanisms. Changes in DBP formation potential along the river appeared to correlate with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and organic nitrogen concentrations and specific ultraviolet absorbance. The mean oxidation state of carbon (MOC) decreased in value along the river. MOC decreases paralleled decreases in the biodegradability of residual DOC (i.e., lower biodegradable DOC/DOC ratio). The EfOM was biodegradable by up to 40 percent, both in the stream and in a laboratory reactor, and many DBP precursors (e.g., haloacetonitriles, certain nitrosamines) decreased in concentration. Alternatively, the DBP yields for trihalomethanes or haloacetic acids either remained the same or increased slightly, suggesting that these precursors were part of the recalcitrant organic matter (OM).     

The measurement of electron transport system activity in river biofilms

The factors affecting the measurement of electron transport system (ETS) activity in river biofilm through the reduction of 2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride (INT) to iodonitrotetrazolium formazan (INT-formazan) have been studied. Methanol extracts INT-formazan more effectively than either propanol or ethanol. A concentration of 0.02% INT was chosen and samples should be incubated for less than 8 h. ETS activity is optimal at a circumneutral pH. ETS stimulators (NADH, NADPH and succinate) added as a check of the assay produced an increase in INT-formazan indicating that ETS activity was being measured. This assay is quick, easy to use and ideal for field studies.     

The measurement of electron transport system (ETS) activity in freshwater sediment

Electron transport system (ETS) activity was measured in freshwater sediment at 4, 10 and 20°C by following the reduction of 2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride (INT) to iodonitrotetrazolium (INT-formazan). The rate of INT-formazan formation was dependent upon the incubation temperature and nutrient amendments. Electron transport system activity also correlated very highly with O₂ consumption rates in the same sediment.     

Effect of average flow and capacity utilization on effluent water quality from US municipal wastewater treatment facilities

There is increasing interest in decentralization of wastewater collection and treatment systems. However, there have been no systematic studies of the performance of small treatment facilities compared with larger plants. A statistical analysis of 4 years of discharge monthly report (DMR) data from 210 operating wastewater treatment facilities was conducted to determine the effect of average flow rate and capacity utilization on effluent biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), ammonia, and fecal coliforms relative to permitted values. Relationships were quantified using generalized linear models (GLMs). Small facilities (40 m³/d) had violation rates greater than 10 times that of the largest facilities (400,000 m³/d) for BOD, TSS, and ammonia. For facilities with average flows less than 40,000 m³/d, increasing capacity utilization was correlated with increased effluent levels of BOD and TSS. Larger facilities tended to operate at flows closer to their design capacity while maintaining treatment suggesting greater efficiency.     

超限运输对高速公路损坏影响的分析及对策

介绍了超限运输对高速公路的影响，分析了形成超限运输的原因，从法治手段、经济手段、设计理念三方面论述了治理高速公路超限运输的思路和配套措施，从而减少公路损坏，确保公路正常使用。     

The impact of transfers on water quality and the disturbance regime in a reservoir

The effect of water transfers between two reservoirs on the water quality of the receiving reservoir was investigated over a 9-year period (2000-2008). Different management strategies were implemented in term of the magnitude and timing of water transfers, i.e. the amount of transferred volume and the frequency at which transfers occurred. These different operational modes were analysed to determine changes in nutrient and metal concentrations, chlorophyll a, algal genera and biovolume. During high water transfers, chlorophyll a and total algal biovolume increased, with larger diatoms preferentially selected due to the high silica content of the pumped inflow and a significant shift in cyanobacteria genera occurring from Microcystis to nitrogen-fixing genera. The magnitude and timing of water transfers exerted a strong control on phytoplankton competition and disturbed the typical seasonal succession during low pumping years of a spring diatom bloom followed by summer cyanobacteria dominance: intensive and frequent water transfers resulted in dominance by diatoms for the whole year and effectively limited cyanobacteria summer growth. From this analysis, we identified iron concentration and diatom biovolume as the key water quality indicators to be included in any optimal management, able to control the transfer regime from both a water quantity and water quality prospective.     

Total and methyl mercury transformations and mass loadings within a wastewater treatment plant and the impact of the effluent discharge to an alkaline hypereutrophic lake

Concerns over the fate and bioaccumulation of mercury (Hg) inputs to Onondaga Lake, a hypereutrophic lake in central New York, prompted an investigation into the concentrations and fluxes of Hg discharge from the Onondaga County Metropolitan Wastewater Treatment Plant (METRO WWTP). Discharge of methyl Hg (MeHg) is of concern because it is the form of Hg that readily bioaccumulates along the aquatic food chain. This study incorporated clean protocols for sampling and Hg analysis to evaluate: seasonal patterns in the concentrations of total Hg (THg) and MeHg in the WWTP unit processes; the production of MeHg within the unit processes of the WWTP; the overall fate of THg and MeHg within the WWTP; and the relative impact of the Hg discharged from the WWTP to Onondaga Lake. Concentrations of THg (range: 80-860 ng/L) and MeHg (0.7-17 ng/L) in raw sewage were highly variable, with higher concentrations observed in the summer months. The dynamics of THg though the WWTP were correlated with total suspended solids (TSS). As a result, the majority of the THg removal (55%) occurred during primary treatment. Overall, about 92% of the THg entering the plant was removed as sludge, with volatilization likely a minor component of the overall Hg budget. The transformation of MeHg through the plant differed from THg in that MeHg was not correlated with TSS, and displayed strong seasonal differences between winter (November to April) and summer (May-October) months. During the summer months, substantial net methylation occurred in the activated sludge secondary treatment, resulting in higher MeHg concentrations in secondary effluent. Net demethylation was the dominant mechanism during tertiary treatment, resulting in removal of substantial MeHg from the secondary effluent. The overall MeHg removal efficiency through the plant was about 70% with more efficient removal during summer months. Sediment trap collections made below the epilimnion of Onondaga Lake indicated average deposition rates of 12 μg/m²-day for THg and 0.33 μg/m²-day for MeHg. These deposition rates are more than an order of magnitude higher than the thermocline area normalized external loads from METRO effluent (0.85 μg/m²-day for THg, 0.05 μg/m²-day for MeHg). Our findings indicate that the impact of the discharge from METRO is relatively small, contributing about 10-15% of Hg to the total gross Hg input to the hypolimnion of the lake.     

城市交通信息系统的数据共享和交换机制研究

针对加快信息整合步伐的必要性和迫切性,结合上海市城市交通信息监控平台,探讨了信息数据的共享和交换机制,介绍了数据信息的整理流程和数据入库的方法,对数据交换共享进行了解析,使共享和交换不同部门的不同数据格式成为可能.     

The effect of thermal hydrolysis pretreatment on the anaerobic degradation of nonylphenol and short-chain nonylphenol ethoxylates in digested biosolids

The presence of micropollutants can be a concern for land application of biosolids. Of particular interest are nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP₂EO), nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP₁EO), and nonylphenol (NP), collectively referred to as NPE, which accumulate in anaerobically digested biosolids and are subject to regulation based on the environmental risks associated with them. Because biosolids are a valuable nutrient resource, it is essential that we understand how various treatment processes impact the fate of NPE in biosolids. Thermal hydrolysis (TH) coupled with mesophilic anaerobic digestion (MAD) is an advanced digestion process that destroys pathogens in biosolids and increases methane yields and volatile solids destruction. We investigated the impact of thermal hydrolysis pretreatment on the subsequent biodegradation of NPE in digested biosolids. Biosolids were treated with TH, anaerobic digestion, and aerobic digestion in laboratory-scale reactors, and NPE were analyzed in the influent and effluent of the digesters. NP₂EO and NP₁EO have been observed to degrade to the more estrogenic NP under anaerobic conditions; therefore, changes in the ratio of NP:NPE were of interest. The increase in NP:NPE following MAD was 56%; the average increase of this ratio in four sets of TH-MAD samples, however, was only 24.6 ± 3.1%. In addition, TH experiments performed in pure water verified that, during TH, the high temperature and pressure alone did not directly destroy NPE; TH experiments with NP added to sludge also showed that NP was not destroyed by the high temperature and pressure of TH when in a more complex sludge matrix. The post-aerobic digestion phases removed NPE, regardless of whether TH pretreatment occurred. This research indicates that changes in biosolids processing can have impacts beyond just gas production and solids destruction.     

漕运文化与中国城市发展

以漕运制度为切入点，分析了漕运文化与都城及商业城镇发展的关系，进而探讨了城市滨河地区及其建筑在漕运文化影响下的兴衰和变迁，对理解我国城市的发展沿革和当前的城市更新具有积极和创新的意义。     

Laboratory tests on the impact of superabsorbent polymers on transformation and sorption of xenobiotics in soil taking 14C-imazalil as an example

Due to water scarcity, the agricultural production in arid areas is dependent on a sustainable irrigation management. In order to optimize irrigation systems, the application of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) as soil amendments, frequently studied within the last years, may be an appropriate measure to enhance the water holding capacity and the plant-available water in poor arable soils. These persistent polymers are also able to reduce heavy metal and salt stress to crops by accumulating those inorganic compounds. However, the impact of SAP on fate and behavior of organic xenobiotics in soil is unknown. Therefore, transformation and sorption of the model substance ¹⁴C-imazalil were monitored without and with SAP amendment in silty sand and sand soil under laboratory conditions.Within the 100-d incubation period, the transformation of ¹⁴C-imazalil was not substantially affected by the SAP amendment even though the microbial activity increased considerably. In the silty sand soil, extractable residues dropped from 90% to 45% without and from 96% to 46% with SAP amendment. Non-extractable residues continuously increased up to 49% and 35% while mineralization reached 6% and 5%, respectively. In the sand soil, characterized by its lower microbial activity and lower organic carbon content, extractable residues merely dropped from 99% to 81% and from 100% to 85% while non-extractable residues increased from 2% to 14% and 1% to 10%, respectively. Mineralization was lower than 2%. The increased microbial activity, usually promoting transformation processes of xenobiotics, was compensated by the enhanced sorption in the amended soils revealed by the increase of soil/water distribution coefficients (K_d) of 26 to 42 L kg^− 1 for the silty sand and 6 to 25 L kg^− 1 for the sand, respectively.     

The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters

A 5-month monitoring program was undertaken in South Wales in the UK to determine the fate of 55 pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs (PPCPs) in two contrasting wastewater plants utilising two different wastewater treatment technologies: activated sludge and trickling filter beds. The impact of treated wastewater effluent on the quality of receiving waters was also assessed.PPCPs were found to be present at high loads reaching 10 kg day⁻¹ in the raw sewage. Concentrations of PPCPs in raw sewage were found to correlate with their usage/consumption patterns in Wales and their metabolism. The efficiency of the removal of PPCPs was found to be strongly dependent on the technology implemented in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). In general, the WWTP utilising trickling filter beds resulted in, on average, less than 70% removal of all 55 PPCPs studied, while the WWTP utilising activated sludge treatment gave a much higher removal efficiency of over 85%. The monitoring programme revealed that treated wastewater effluents were the main contributors to PPCPs concentrations (up to 3 kg of PPCPs day⁻¹) in the rivers studied. Bearing in mind that in the cases examined here the WWTP effluents were also major contributors to rivers' flows (dilution factor for the studied rivers did not exceed 23 times) the effect of WWTP effluent on the quality of river water is significant and cannot be underestimated.     

The effects of phytophagous insects on water and soil nutrient concentrations and fluxes through forest stands of the Level II monitoring network in the UK

The effects of insect defoliators on throughfall and soil nutrient fluxes were studied in coniferous and deciduous stands at five UK intensive monitoring plots (1998 to 2008). Links were found between the dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) fluxes through the forest system to biological activity within the canopy. Underlying soil type determined the leaching or accumulation of these elements. Under oak, monitored at two sites, frass from caterpillars of Tortrix viridana and Operophtera brumata added direct deposition of ~ 16 kg ha⁻¹extra N during defoliation. Peaks of nitrate (NO₃-N) flux between 5 and 9 kg ha⁻¹ (×5 usual winter values) were recorded in consecutive years in shallow soil waters. Synchronous rises in deep soil NO₃-N fluxes at the Grizedale sandy site indicate downward flushing, not seen at the clay site. Under three Sitka spruce stands, generation of honeydew (DOC) was attributed to two aphid species (Elatobium abietinum and Cinara pilicornis) with distinctive feeding strategies. Throughfall DOC showed mean annual fluxes (6 seasons) ~ 45-60 kg ha⁻¹ compared with rainfall values of 14-22 kg ha⁻¹. Increases of total N in throughfall and NO₃-N fluxes in shallow soil solution were detected — soil water fluxes reached  8 kg ha⁻¹ in Llyn Brianne, ~ 25 kg ha⁻¹ in Tummel, and ~ 40 kg NO₃-N ha⁻¹ in Coalburn. At Tummel, on sandy soil, NO₃-N leaching showed increased concentration at depth, attributed to microbiological activity within the soil. By contrast, at Coalburn and Llyn Brianne, sites on peaty gleys, soil water NO₃-N was retained mostly within the humus layer. Soil type is thus key to predicting N movement and retention patterns. These long term analyses show important direct and indirect effects of phytophagous insects in forest ecosystems, on above and below ground processes affecting tree growth, soil condition, vegetation and water quality.     

The soil condition, the foundation and the basement of the Frauenkirche in Dresden

The archeological reconstruction of the Frauenkirche in Dresden was begun immediately following the archeological removal of the rubble of the remains. In this process, four essential construction phases were realized during the time frame from May 1994 until August 1996. To start with, a small section of the wall at the southwest corner of the church was filled in Lot 0. Lot 1 was the realization of a larger wall section at the southwest corner. Further tasks were the renovation of the cellar up to the upper edge of the ground floor and the erection of a subterranean exterior structure. These tasks were preceded by comprehensive activities: review of existing documents (plans, photographs); evaluation of the existing building structure; soil investigations and material tests, preparation of a dimensioned drawing reflecting deformation of the building structure left standing as well as starting deformation measurements of the cellar walls of the ruin as well as of the ruin parts that were left standing. The objective was, in comparison to Bähr's concept, to develop an optimized concept for the support structure. In doing so, solutions had to be found which met the requirements for intended use as specified by the building's owner. The increased demand for space was satisfied with the concept of a subterranean external building, encompassing the church on three sides. One essential item within the scope of structural concept was the elaboration of a secure concept for the reinforcement of the foundations.     

溶质运移与高放核废物处置

通过对溶质运移和高放核废物处置的介绍,结合核素迁移以及我国高放核废物处置的情况,介绍了在核素迁移过程中T-H-M-C四场耦合的组合分类,提出在核废物处置过程中进行四场耦合的研究,并指出在将来的四场耦合研究过程中加强化学场研究的重要性,对高放核废物处置具有一定的指导作用。     

Association of manganese effluent with the application of fertilizer and manure on tea field

Manganese (Mn) concentrations in the tea field effluent were 1.1-3.5 mg/l over a 2 year period from June 1997 to May 1998 (first water year) and June 1998 to May 1999 (second water year). The annual Mn loads were 38,000 g/ha in the first water year and 19,000 g/ha in the second. The highest Mn loads were observed, respectively, in July 1997 (10,000 g/ha) in the first water year and in June 1998 (4100 g/ha) in the second. The water-soluble Mn content of soil of the tea field increased abruptly with decreasing soil pH in the pH region below 4.5. The large Mn load from the tea field during the rainy season is likely due to application of excess fertilizer and manure before the rainy season, which may lead to acidification of the soil.     

Investigation on the removal of natural and synthetic estrogens using biofilms in continuous flow biofilm reactors and batch experiments analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

The degradation of the natural estrogen 17β-estradiol and the synthetic steroid hormone 17α-ethinylestradiol, two estrogens already detected in surface waters at low concentration levels, was investigated using continuous flow biofilm reactors and batch experiments. Biofilms in continuous flow experiments were created by natural organisms from river systems of the national park Unteres Odertal, Germany, whereas batch experiments were performed with isolated bacterial strains derived from biofilms. The analytical method, including solid phase extraction, silylation of analytes and measurement with GC/MS, was optimised for the target compounds 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethinylestradiol and the possible metabolites estrone and estriol. The performance characteristics of the analytical method, namely recovery, standard deviations, method detection limits (MDL) and method quantification limits (MQL), were evaluated for accurate interpretation of degradation experiments. Continuous flow biofilm reactors were operated with two different nutrient media under dosage of estradiol and ethinylestradiol. Both estrogens were rapidly degraded within several hours; the metabolite estrone (from estradiol as well as from ethinylestradiol) was detected in significant amounts and was further decomposed. In additional batch experiments using isolated bacterial strains from the natural biofilms to decompose estradiol and ethinylestradiol, different metabolisms of isolates were explored. Five of the 15 isolated bacterial strains tested degraded estradiol and ethinylestradiol with different degradation rates. The results suggest that biofilms from national park Unteres Odertal possess a high capability to aerobically decompose natural and also synthetic estrogens so that these microorganisms could provide enhanced removal of pollutants in municipal water treatment plants.