Role of internal oxidation and iron penta carbonyl formation on creep life of 9Cr-1Mo steel

To understand the cause of discrepancy between predicted creep life through parametric methods using short term creep test data and creep life obtained from long term experiments, 1000 and 10,000 h duration creep tests were conducted on a 9Cr-1Mo grade steel at 550 and 650 °C and the oxide scale, fracture surface and microstructure of the crept specimens were analyzed extensively using scanning electron microscope, electron probe micro analyzer and wavelength dispersive spectrometry. From the creep tests, it is concluded that the discrepancies between predicted creep life and experimental creep life is more pronounced as the stress increases. This is attributed to the sensitivity of scale growth to stress level at both the investigated temperature. Higher scale thickness reduces the effective stress on metal substrate and slows down the creep rate. At 650 °C, significant drop in creep life due to increase in stress from 84 to 92 MPa is attributed to oxygen ingress along grain boundaries, formation of relatively more internal oxide with whisker morphology. At 550 °C, significant drop in creep life due to increase in stress from 196 to 218 MPa is attributed to formation of iron penta carbonyl at the periphery of internal oxide.     

Influence of precipitated phases on properties during prolonged aging in TP347H steel at 700 °C

The aging of austenitic stainless steel TP347H (18% Cr-12% Ni-1% Nb) was performed at 700 °C for 500, 800, 1500, 2500 and 3650 h. Microstructure, precipitates and mechanical properties were examined on aged materials to analyze the impact of microstructure on mechanical properties. These tests showed that the main precipitate of the TP347 specimen was Nb(C,N) while M₂₃C₆ carbides precipitated at the aging time of 500 h, with the coarsening of M₂₃C₆ and MX phases during prolonged aging. The fine and dispersive Nb(C,N) particle precipitation up to 1500 h aging is a benefit for hardness and creep resistance. After aging for 3650 h, σ phase precipitated. Meanwhile, coarsening of Cr₂₃C₆ and Nb(C,N) led to creep cavity and brittle intergranular fracture. No clear change in tensile properties at room temperature during aging were observed. A distinct decline in creep properties was caused by an average diameter increase and precipitation of σ phase and bulky Cr₂₃C₆.     

Effects of high-temperature ageing on the creep-rupture properties of cobalt-base L-605 alloys

Effects of high-temperature ageing on the creep-rupture properties of cobalt-base L-605 alloys were investigated at 1089 and 1311 K in air. The specimens with serrated grain boundaries and those with normal straight grain boundaries were aged for 1080ksec at 1273 or 1323 K to cause the matrix precipitates of tungsten-rich b c c phase and M₆C carbide. The creep-rupture strength of both specimens were improved by the high-temperature ageing. The rupture strength at 1311 K was the highest in the specimens with serrated grain boundaries aged at 1273 K, while the specimens with straight grain boundaries aged at 1273 K of the highest matrix hardness had the highest rupture strength at 1089 K. The high-temperature ageing did not decrease the rupture ductility of specimens. The ruptured specimens with serrated grain boundaries exhibited a ductile grain-boundary fracture surface which consisted of dimple patterns and steps, regardless of whether high-temperature ageing was carried out. The fracture mode of the specimens with straight grain boundaries was changed from the brittle grainboundary fracture to the ductile one similar to that of the specimens with serrated grain boundaries by high-temperature ageing, since large grain-boundary precipitates which gave nucleation sites of dimples were formed during the ageing. The grain-boundary cracks initiated in the early stage of creep (transient creep regime) in both non-aged and aged specimens of L-605 alloys in creep at 1089 and 1311 K, although the time to crack initiation is shorter in the specimens with straight grain boundaries than in those with serrated grain boundaries. Thus, the period of crack growth and linkage occupied most of the rupture life. The strengthening mechanisms of the aged specimens were also discussed.     

Influence of Aging treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of T92/Super 304H dissimilar metal welds

Influence of aging treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of T92/Super 304H dissimilar steel joints was investigated. The microstructure of T92/Super 304H dissimilar steel joints was characterized using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometer. The results show that the tensile strength of dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) after 10,000 h aging treatment met the ASME T92 and Super 304H standards. Rupture positions were located in the T92 base metal because of the precipitates formed along the sub grain and prior grain boundaries. The tensile strength of DMWs initially increased with time up to 4000 h, then decreased between 4000 to 6000 h, and finally came to almost a constant value from 8000 to 10,000 h exposure. The decrease in the tensile strength resulted from the nucleation and growth of Laves phases at the sub-grains and prior austenitic grain boundaries. The low absorption of impact energy in the weld metal was related to the coarse grains and its grain orientation.     

Creep ductility considerations for high energy components manufactured from creep strength enhanced steels

Abstract

It is well established that the tendency for low ductility ‘creep brittle’ fracture behaviour in tempered martensitic steels is linked to the formation and growth of micro voids or ‘cavities’. Details of the contributions of all factors affecting damage development are still under investigation. However, it is known that for tempered martensitic steels voids often initiate over most of the creep life. Nucleation has been recorded on both prior austenite grain boundaries and at other micro structural features such as lath boundaries. The number of voids formed, and the fracture behaviour observed, depend on the type of creep strength enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steel and specific details of fabrication and heat treatment. In Grade 91 steel, void nucleation is sensitive to metallurgical factors such as composition and steel making practices. Key indicators of susceptibility to creep cavitation also include the levels of trace elements present and the presence of hard non-metallic inclusions. In Grade 92 steel, creep void formation has been linked to boron nitrides and other inclusions. These inclusions are present when there has been insufficient control of composition and heat treatment. Metallurgical factors linked to whether a particle will nucleate a void include the nature of the inclusion/matrix interface, the shape and size and the location of the inclusions within the microstructure. This paper describes the results of critical uniaxial and multiaxial testing for CSEF steels and compares data from nominally the same steels which have different metallurgical susceptibilities to void formation.     

Initiation and Growth of Cavities and Cracks along Grain Boundaries in Type 304 Stainless Steel under Creep-Fatigue Condition

Creep-fatigue tests of Type 304 stainless steel were carriedout using smooth round bar specimens. Cavities and small cracksinitiated inside the specimen were observed on the cross-section bymeans of a scanning laser microscope. The results obtained aresummarized as follows. (1) From the beginning of the creep-fatigue test,spherical cavities appear at random locations on grain boundaries, oneafter another. (2) The cavities on the grain boundaries perpendicular tothe stress axis preferentially grow, and change shape from spherical toflat oblate (or crack-like). (3) When the ligament area on a grainboundary plane reduces to a half, the cavities coalesce and bring abouta complete break of the grain boundary, which is defined as theinitiation of a small crack. (4) Mean growth rate of cavities and crackslocates in the vicinity of the crack propagation law which can bederived from the relationship between the propagation rate of largecrack and creep J-integral range fortime-dependent fatigue of Type 304 stainless steel.     

Effect of W–Mo balance on long-term creep life of 9Cr steel

The effect of tungsten–molybdenum (W–Mo) balance on creep life has been investigated for five heats of martensitic 9Cr steel with 1.5 % Mo equivalent (= 1/2W + Mo) at 600, 650 and 700°C. The combination of W and Mo concentrations in the present steel is 3W–0Mo, 2.8W–0.1Mo, 2.4W–0.3Mo, 1.8W–0.6Mo and 0W–1.5Mo. The time to rupture t_r exhibits a monotonous increase with increasing the W–Mo balance parameter 1/2W/(1/2W + Mo), namely, with increasing W concentration and concomitantly with decreasing Mo. The increase in t_r with increasing 1/2W/(1/2W + Mo) becomes less significant at long times. The precipitation of Fe₂(W,Mo) Laves phase takes place preferentially at prior austenite grain boundaries during creep, which enhances the grain boundary (GB) precipitation hardening. The amount of Laves phase increases with increasing 1/2W/(1/2W + Mo). The coarsening of Laves phase takes place at long times during creep, which reduces the GB precipitation hardening.     

电厂锅炉末级过热器爆管原因分析

在长期过热的运行工况下,锅炉高温过热器极易产生材料的劣化以及材料组织和性能的下降,最终引发爆管事故。通过宏观检查、布氏硬度测试、抗拉强度测试和金相组织检验对某电厂末级过热器爆管原因进行分析。结果表明,该末级过热器管由于在长期高温高压下超温运行,导致碳化物在晶界富集,晶界强度下降,在拉应力的作用下,晶界产生蠕变空洞及蠕变裂纹,使得珠光体耐热钢的持久强度和抗拉强度下降,最终产生断裂失效。     

Microstructural evolution and the effect on hardness of Sanicro 25 welded joint base metal after creep at 973 K

The microstructural evolution and the hardness of Sanicro 25 welded joint base metal after creep at 973 K were investigated, aiming to determine which precipitate is the most important to affect the change in hardness. The precipitates in as-received specimen consist of primary NbCrN and NbC. Creep at 973 K results in the precipitation of secondary NbCrN and Cu-rich particles which grow slightly and M₂₃C₆ which coarsens noticeably. The precipitation of secondary NbCrN, Cu-rich particles and M₂₃C₆ greatly increases the hardness in the early stage of creep. However, when the creep rupture time falls in the range from 582 to 4265 h, the hardness is reduced mainly owing to the growth of Cu-rich particles. With further creep, the growth of both secondary NbCrN and Cu-rich particles decreases the hardness furthermore. It is thus concluded that both secondary NbCrN and Cu-rich particles are the key precipitates to affect the hardness change in Sanicro 25 welded joint base metal after creep at 973 K.     

Beitrag zur Bestimmung des Schädigungszustandes von kriechbeanspruchtem CrMoV-Stahl

A Contribution to the Problem of the Determination of the Creep Damage for a CrMoV-Steel0 The lifetime of materials subjected to creep is limited by the accumulated damage. The estimation of the creep damage is difficult, especially in cases where there is uncertainty about the thermal history of a specific component. Creep damage usually consists of a reversible and an irreversible part. The reversible part can be recovered by a heat treatment and is mainly due to changes in the microstructure (dislocation configuration, state of precipitation etc.). Irreversible damage is usually a consequence of necking or of cavitation. In the present investigation a CrMoV-steel (0.18 C/0.6 Mn/0.4 Cr/1.1 Mo/0.4 V) was creep tested at 550 °C and a stress of 245 N/mm². After certain times or strains the specimens were removed and their microstructural state was determined. From the removed specimens new samples with smaller dimensions were machined and again tested under the same conditions. Between the first and the second creep test a new heat treatment was applied for some of the samples, in order to remove the reversible creep damage and to gain more information about the influence of the irreversible damage on creep. The creep behavior of the investigated CrMoV steel depends very strongly on the initial microstructure. For the same testing conditions the time to fracture can vary from 740 hours (40% upper bainite/60% ferrite) up to almost 10000 hours (100% coarse grained upper bainite). This result indicates that the type and the progress of the creep damage could also be influenced by the microstructure. In fact with the ferritic-bainitic structure cavities mainly develop on ferrite-bainite grain boundaries and are usually not linked together. Within the purely bainitic microstructures, the cavities are found on former austenite grain boundaries and have very often a crack-like appearance. The behavior of newly machined samples after the first creep test without a new heat treatment is dictated by the internal damage of the sample. After the removal of the scale and the macroscopic inhomogeneities the creep curves of the second test can be considered as a continuation of the first creep (curves figure 10 in German text). A new heat treatment ( 1000 °C/l h/air + 725 °C/4 h/air) between te two creep tests leads to a partial recovery of the original properties. For the mixed bainitic-ferritic microstructure, even for fractured samples, a considerale increase in time to fracture is observed, e.g. 1156 hrs for the first test, 6821 hrs for the second test after a new heat treatment. The new heat treatment produced a much more creep resistant microstructure and recovers therefore the influence of any creep damage, especially in the case of the originally ferritic-bainitic microstructure. In order to reveal the effect of creep damage on the second test, the creep properties of the microstructure produced by the intermediate heat treatment has to be considered as a reference (100% upper bainite). This fully bainitic steel exhibited in its new state mean values of time to fracture t_f = 8554 hrs, and secondary creep rate \documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$ \dot \varepsilon _{\rm S} $\end{document} = 2 × 10^?10 sec^?1. The experimentally measured creep data of the second creep test and the mean values form a specific ratio as a measure of the damage during the course of the first creep test. This behavior is shown schematically in Fig. 14. In this figure the creep strain is plotted as a function of the ratio between the mean time to fracture and the time to fracture in the second creep test (or secondary creep rate). The experimental results show that it needs of a minimum creep strain to initiate irreversible creep damage. The amount of strain depends also on the microstructure. In a relatively brittle steel containing e.g. coarse rained upper bainite, creep damage commences early in the secondary creep stage, whereas in more ductile steel the onset of tertiary creep coincides with the begin of irreversible damage.     

Effect of long term elevated temperature service on the properties of type P–22 steel

Abstract

Extensive service at 540°C led to changes in the composition, morphology, size, and distribution of the original carbides that were present in the pre-service steel. This service did not seem to introduce weakening voids along grain boundaries. At low creep stress levels the stress versus Larson–Miller parameter (LMP) curve of the postservice steel indicates better performance than the lower bound of the pre-service steel. The opposite performance was found at high creep stress levels. The service led to only a slight reduction in fracture toughness of the steel. Exposure to post-service accelerated creep tests led to further gradual reduction in fracture toughness. The reductions in fracture toughness were proportional to the creep strain and duration. The formation of spherical carbides during the accelerated creep tests promoted void formation during the fracture process and thus contributed to the observed additional reduction in fracture toughness.     

Microstructure Evolution of a 10Cr Heat-Resistant Steel during High Temperature Creep

The microstructure evolution of a 10Cr ferritic/martensitic heat-resistant steel during creep at 600℃ was investigated in this work.Creep tests demonstrated that the 10Cr steel had higher creep strength than conventional ASME-P92 steel at 600℃.The microstructure after creep was studied by transmission electron microscopy,scanning electron microscopy and electron probe microanalysis.It was revealed that the martensitic laths were coarsened with time and eventually developed into subgrains after 8354 h.Laves phase was observed to grow and cluster along the prior austenite grain boundaries during creep and caused the fluctuation of solution and precipitation strengthening effects,which was responsible for the two slope changes on the creep rupture strength vs rupture time curve.It was also revealed that the microstructure evolution could be accelerated by stress,which resulted in the lower hardness in the deformed part of the creep specimen,compared with the aging part.     

Effects of creep age forming time on microstructure and high cyclic fatigue of 7075 aluminum alloy

In this paper, the hardness, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation E₁₀₀, S−N curves, and fatigue performance of 7075 aluminum alloy were obtained after aged at 170 °C for different times (10 h, 15 h, and 20 h). Additionally, the microstructure and fatigue fracture of the alloy were observed. The investigation results show that as the forming time increased, the hardness, ultimate tensile strength, and yield strength decreased, the elongation first decreased, then increased, and the fatigue limit increased. As the forming time increased, the metastable phase gradually transformed into a steady phase and coarsened, the width of precipitate free zone increased, and the width of the fatigue strip decreased. After creep age forming for 20 h, the precipitate free zone was the widest, approximately 100 nm.     

Influence of heat treatment on creep of a Mn–N stabilised austenitic stainless steel

Creep at 700 °C/196 MPa and 900 or 925 °C/27.4 MPa of 21Cr–4Ni–9Mn austenitic stainless steel is determined as a function of the heat treatment. The heat treatment variation involves altering the solution heat treatment cooling rate from water quenching to cooling at 6 or 4 °C/min causing: serrated grain boundaries versus planar grain boundaries, coarser intergranular carbides, and discontinuous precipitation of grain boundary reaction zones. Water quenching causes improved creep resistance. Creep fracture and cracking is intergranular. Coarse intergranular carbides and grain boundary reaction zones cause premature void formation and cracking, this damage leading to an accelerating creep rate and lowering creep resistance of the more slowly cooled conditions. During creep, grain boundary serrations, which may otherwise contribute to improved creep, are eliminated. Determining the individual influence of grain boundary serrations on creep requires a detailed investigation of various heat treatment parameters to prevent concurrent formation of grain boundary reaction zones and serrations.     

Microstructures and high-temperature mechanical properties in 9Cr–0.5Mo–1.8W–VNb steel after aging at 650°C

A series of experiments, including post-aged tensile tests, charpy impact tests, Vickers hardness test, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examinations and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, were carried out to investigate the microstructure evolution and high-temperature mechanical properties of P92 steel. Experimental results show that martensitic lath structure gradually recovers during long-term aging; meanwhile, the content and size of spheroidal M₂₃C₆ together with Laves phase distributed mainly along prior austenite grain boundaries and subgrain boundaries increase with extending the aging time, but MX in grain interior seems to be stable. The strength parameters (σ_ys and σ_ult), the ductile parameters (δ and Φ_f) and high-temperature impact absorbed energy all show an initially slight increase followed by a decrease with the increase of the aging time up to 500?h. After aging for 2000?h at 650°C, this degradation behaviour becomes stable, although the Vickers hardness is not strongly affected by the aging time. Based on the microstructural observations and high-temperature mechanical properties, the strengthening mechanism of P92 steel was discussed.     

Cyclic behaviour of 12% Cr ferritic‐martensitic steel upon long‐term on‐site service in power plants

The strain‐controlled and stress‐controlled low‐cycle fatigue behaviour of served 12% Cr ferritic–martensitic steel is conducted at room temperature. Continuous softening is observed at both control modes, and the fitting results show that the fatigue properties of 12% Cr steel are not reduced significantly after 230 000 h service at 550 °C/13.7 MPa. Scanning electron microscopy has been employed to investigate the microstructure evolution after long‐term service. It is proved that the decomposition of martensite laths structure and the coarsening of carbides at grain/lath boundaries are the main reasons why the pipe bursts after 180 000 h service at 550 °C/17.1 MPa. The fracture under both control modes has been observed by using scanning electron microscopy, and it indicates coarse carbides along grain/lath boundaries are favourable sites for micro‐crack nucleation and the secondary cracks along the fatigue striations are formed by the connection of micro‐cracks nucleated during fatigue behaviour.     

热处理对TP347H钢组织结构及力学性能的影响

本文通过800--900℃的加速老化试验,研究热处理过程中TP347H钢的组织结构及力学性能的变化特征。结果表明：800℃,58h热处理,原奥氏体晶粒尺寸稳定,碳化物颗粒在晶界及晶内弥散析出;900℃,5．5h高温热处理后,析出碳化物聚集长大,导致晶界宽化。经900℃,5．5h高温处理后,TP347H钢仍为韧窝聚集型断裂,但断裂面相对平整,韧窝细而浅,且沿基体晶界有二次裂纹扩展。上述组织结构的变化导致热处理过程中TP347H钢的强度持续降低,而塑性先增加,后降低。     

Effect of Nb on long-term creep life of JIS SUS304HTB and JIS SUS347HTB steels – heat-to-heat variation and life assessment of stainless steels

Heat-to-heat variation in creep life has been investigated for the 9 heats of JIS SUS 304HTB (18Cr–8Ni steel) and also for the 9 heats of JIS SUS 347HTB (18Cr–12Ni–Nb steel) in the NIMS Creep Data Sheets, mainly taking the effect of Nb into account. The heat-to-heat variation in creep life of 304HTB is mainly caused by the variation in precipitation hardening due to fine NbC carbides at short times, while it is mainly caused by the variation in available nitrogen concentration, defined as the concentration of nitrogen free from AlN and TiN, at long times. The heat-to-heat variation in creep life of 347HTB is mainly explained by the variation of boron concentration, 3–27 ppm, but not by the variation of solution temperature, Nb/C atomic ratio and phosphorus concentration. Boron reduces the coarsening rate of fine M₂₃C₆ carbides along grain boundaries, which enhances the grain boundary precipitation hardening.     

Metallurgical and mechanical characterization of mild steel-mild steel joint formed by microwave hybrid heating process

In this paper, mild steel–mild steel (MS-MS) joints fabricated through microwave hybrid heating (MHH) have been characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron probe micro analyser (EPMA), Vicker’s microhardness measurement and tensile strength. The XRD spectrum of the developed joints shows substitution type of solid solution form in the joint zone. The back scattered electron (BSE) images of the joint obtained by SEM show complete melting of powder particle and consequently diffusion bonding takes place between the substrate and the powder particle. The electron probe micro analysis shows diffusion of element across the joint. The Vicker’s micro hardness of the joints was measured to be 420 ± 30 Hv, which is higher than that of substrate hardness 230 ± 10 Hv. The tensile strength of the sample was measured by an universal testing machine and found to be 240 MPa which is about 50% of base material strength. The SEM micrographs of the fractured sample indicate mixed modes of failure during fracture of the joint; both ductile and brittle modes of failures occurred as indicated by dimple and cleavage of the brittle faces, respectively.     

Effects of trace impurities on the adherence of oxide to ultra low carbon steel

The effects of trace impurities on the adherence of oxides to ultra low carbon steels were investigated. Three steels, of differing chromium, aluminium, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen content, were oxidized at 850 K in 10% CO₂-90% N₂ gas and then oxidized at 770 K in 10% CO₂-10% O₂-80% N₂ gas. Surface analysers, i.e. a Mössbauer spectrometer, Auger electron spectrometer and/or ion micro analyser, were utilized in the present study because of the very thin layer of oxides formed (1.0 to 2.0 µm). The following results were obtained. The oxide on the Al-containing steel spalled at the outer-inner oxide interface, where aluminium was enriched and many cavities appeared. The inner oxide layer, oxidized by the transport of CO₂ or O₂ gases along the outer layer grain boundaries or micropores, became thick. This generated a stress at the outer-inner layer interface with the resultant formation of cavities. On the other hand, the oxide on the Cr-containing steel showed good adherence to the metal. The inner layer, enriched with chromium, did not become thick and had no cavities at the interface. The addition of chromium to the Al-containing steel resulted in good oxide adherence because chromium acted as a barrier to the aluminium enrichment.