Retrogression and re-aging of 7010 open die forgings

Abstract

Open die forgings of the aluminium alloy 7010 (DTD5636) have been retrogressed and re-aged at 200 and 240°C to improve the combination of strength and stress corrosion cracking resistance. Vickers hardness, electrical conductivity, tensile, plane strain fracture toughness and constant crack opening displacement stress corrosion cracking test data are reported. A retrogression treatment of 40 min at 200°C produces material with T6 levels of strength and fracture toughness, in combination with T74 levels of stress corrosion cracking resistance.     

Effects of microstructure, specimen and loading geometries on KIC of brittle honeycombs

Fracture toughness of brittle honeycombs depends on cell microstructure, specimen and geometries. A microstructure coefficient in the K_IC expression of brittle honeycombs can not be found analytically. In this paper, a finite element program is utilized to numerically determine the coefficient. In practice, fracture toughness can be measured from conducting a three-point bend or uniaxial tension test. Specimen geometry restrictions of three-point bend test for honeycombs are examined and proposed here. Meanwhile, fracture toughness of honeycombs under the two loading geometries is compared; results show that K_IC measured from uniaxial tension test is smaller than that from three-point bend test if the K_IC formulations for solid materials are employed. As a result of that, the K_IC formulation of three-point bend test is modified for honeycomb-like materials.     

Application of the double slip plane crack model to temperature and strain rate sensitive BCC metals

The double slip plane crack model proposed by Weertman, Lin and Thomson (1982) has been applied to model the effect of temperature and strain rate on the stress intensity factor at a crack tip in temperature and strain rate sensitive materials. Increase in temperature or decrease in strain rate (as well as a decrease in slip plane spacing) are shown to increase the shielding of the crack tip by dislocation distributions on the slip planes. Furthermore, the effect of temperature on the fracture toughness, K_llc, at various strain rates was shown to exhibit the same sigmoidal shaped curve seen for K_lc data in typical alloy steels.     

A theoretical approach for evaluating the plane strain fracture toughness of ductile metals

Fracture Mechanics of Ductile Metals (FMDM) theory is used to obtain the plane strain fracture toughness, K_lc, for different materials. The traditional approach for obtaining the K_lc value is to conduct several standard tests on cracked plates that are costly and time consuming. The fracture toughness value provided by the FMDM theory depends on the stress-strain curve for the material in question, and this is readily available in MIL-HDBK-5 and other reliable sources. The results of the plane strain fracture toughness (K_lc) values provided by the FMDM theory were compared with the experimental data and it was concluded that the two are in excellent agreement. It is proposed that, in the interest of economy and convenience, K_lc testing could be replaced by the FMDM theory.     

K417G合金的环境致脆磨损机理

采用可控气氛磨损试验机测试含有Ni3Al相的K417 G合金在不同相对湿度空气、真空、氧气、氮气、二氧化碳、氢气和氩气下的摩擦磨损性能,用SEM观察磨损表面形貌,基于线弹性力学计算表面裂纹应力强度因子K1,依据能量学计算合金元素的环境敏感性,研究合金的环境致脆磨损机理.结果 表明:磨损工况下,高相对湿度空气中的水蒸汽是...     

The effects of interstitial elements on the phase stability and mechanical behavior of selected intermetallics

The possibility of stabilizing by interstitial element alloying a crystal structure more favorable for mechanical behavior was explored in a number of high temperature intermetallics. The base intermetallics A₃B were mainly of the Cr₃Si (A15) structure type and alloying with interstitials A₃BX_x, where X ≡ C, O or N, in many cases resulted in the ordered f.c.c. Cu₃Au (Ll₂) or perovskite (L′l₂) structures. At least 16 alloy systems exhibit this effect, as determined from our research and from the literature. The V₃AuX (X ≡ O, C,) and V₃PtO systems were selected for quantitative study of the mechanical behavior. The fracture toughness K_IC, as estimated by both microhardness indentation cracking methods and fractal geometry measurements of fractured surfaces, indicated that the interstitial-stabilized L′l₂ phase had K_IC values two to three times greater than those of the base A15 compound, although the absolute values were still low.     

Studies of the effect of metal particles on the fracture toughness of ceramic matrix composites

The purpose of this study was to describe the influence of metal particles on the fracture toughness of ceramic matrix composites. Here, alumina matrix composites with molybdenum particles have been investigated. The results presented show that the change of fracture toughness of a ceramic–metal composite can be controlled by the volume fraction of metallic phase and size of metal particles.

The model proposed in this paper describes the change of crack length and as a consequence, the change of K_IC value. The results of modelling calculations have been compared with experimentally measured K_IC values. This model is useful for simulation of crack length changes in the composites and to design a material with an optimum fracture toughness.     

Fatigue and fracture of a 200 ksi grade maraging steel proposed for use in military bridging

Maraging steel containing 18 per cent nickel offers apparent advantages of high strength, weldability, corrosion resistance and toughness. In view of the suitability of the material for bridge construction, a study of the fatigue crack growth and fracture properties was undertaken. A proposed bridge design contained hinged sections of 4 in. and 2 in. Thickness for female and male jaws, and thin welded girders manufactured from plate material 0.18 in thick.

Plane strain fracture toughness tests were carried out on samples taken from the 4 in. And 2 in. Sections using 3 point-bend and compact tension specimens. K_Q values of approximately 75 ksi √in. For the 4 in. samples and 110 ksi √in. For the 2 in. Samples were obtained.

Plane stress fracture toughness tests were conducted on center cracked sheets up to 11 in. in width. Using critical crack lengths determined by compliance measurements, K_C values in excess of 400 ksi √in. have been obtained in specimens of up to 0.180 in. Thickness. Fatigue crack growth rates were determined from these specimens prior to fracture testing.

In both plane strain and plane stress failure modes, laboratory results are in agreement with those estimated from the failure of experimental structures.     

Regression-based CVN–KIC Models for hot work tool steels

Dies and tools used in hot metal forming (extrusion, forging, rolling, etc.) are exposed to high pressures, elevated temperatures, and thermo-mechanical fatigue. The most common mode of in-service die failure is fatigue fracture (brittle failure through crack propagation). Reliable determination of fracture toughness of the die material is thus critically important. However, as die steels have a combination of high-hardness and high-strength, and are used at elevated temperatures, standard plane-strain fracture toughness (K_IC) testing methods become impracticable. Alternate testing procedures such as the Charpy impact energy (CVN), together with empirical/semi-empirical correlations of K_IC to other data, are then more viable and economical. Experimental data (values of K_IC, CVN, and HRC) of H13 steels have been collected through an exhaustive literature search. This data set has been augmented through in-house experimentation: samples variously heat treated (different tempering temperatures and times, and both air-cooling and oil-quenching), and tested at different working temperatures. Linear and quadratic models are proposed for determination of fracture toughness, based on experimental (in-house) and published values of Charpy impact energy (CVN) and Rockwell hardness (HRC), both at room and at elevated temperatures.     

Plane strain fracture toughness of MP35N in aged and unaged conditions measured using modified CT specimens

The multiphase alloy MP35N (35% Ni, 35% Co, 10% Mo, 20% Cr) is a high strength, high toughness alloy of choice for several safety-critical applications in aerospace, oil drilling, and biomedical industries. Several previous attempts in literature to measure the plane strain fracture toughness of commercially drawn MP35N did not produce reliable values since they violated one or more of the criteria stipulated by ASTM standards for a valid measurement of K_Ic. In most cases, the requirements for plane strain and small scale yielding conditions were not met, since the commercially drawn material was available only with limited cross-sectional dimensions. In this investigation specially designed specimens (modified compact tension (CT) specimens) have been used to measure the plane strain fracture toughness of MP35N in both the unaged and the aged conditions. The K_Ic of the commercially drawn (53% reduction level) MP35N was measured to be 126 MPa√m, while that of the commercially drawn and aged MP35N was measured to be 98 MPa√m. Both these measurements satisfied all the required criteria stipulated by ASTM standards for valid measurements of K_Ic. The new procedure used in this study has been verified by the measuring of fracture toughness of Al alloy, using both the modified specimen, as designed here, and the standard one. The results for plane strain fracture toughness of MP35N alloy have been verified by the standard measurement of J_Ic values for both the aged and the unaged alloys. Finally, on a suitably normalized plot, introduced in this paper, the toughness-strength envelop for MP35 is higher than most of structural alloys, but significantly lower than that of the TRIP steels.     

Studies on fracture toughness and fractographic features in Fe---Mn base alloys

Fractographic examinations of fracture surfaces of single edge crack plate tension fracture toughness test specimens of some new Fe---Mn base maraging alloys have been conducted. The interrelations between the fractographic features, fracture toughness and other mechanical properties of these alloys have been studied. It is observed that the width of the stretched zone between fatigue and rapid fracture is related to K/σ_ys of the material where K is either K_IC, K_Q or the stress intensity for onset of microscopic slow crack growth. The stretched zone width is approximately equal to the average dimple size. Also it is of the order of the process zone size (calculated by modified Krafft's model) and the critical crack opening displacement in plane strain condition. Hahn and Rosenfield's model to estimate K_Ic was found to show much higher values in those cases where the fracture mode was predominantly cleavage, quasicleavage or intergranular.     

Shear lips on fatigue fractures in aluminium alloy sheet material

An analysis is made of shear lip width measurements and the transition of tensile mode fatigue cracks to shear mode fatigue cracks, as observed on fatigue crack surfaces of aluminium alloy sheet material. It could be shown that these phenomena were controlled by ΔK_eff, rather than K_max or ΔK. For crack growth in air the shear lip width was approximately proportional to (ΔK_eff)², but it was significantly larger than the estimated size of the reversed plastic zone. The initiation of shear lips, the transition from plane stress to plane strain along the crack front and the environmental effect on shear lips are briefly considered in the discussion.     

INFLUENCE OF MICROSTRUCTURE ON WEAR RESISTANCE PARAMETER OF CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS

This report examines the role of microstructure of a new type of cutting tool material on an existing relationship between its abrasion wear resistance, fracture toughness (K_IC), and hardness (H). Three alumina-silver composites with different amounts of metal particles have been prepared, and their hardness and fracture toughness properties have been determined together with the assessment of their microstructural features such as volume fraction of the second phase, porosity, etc. The mechanical wear on the flanks of cutting tool inserts, made from the developed composites, has also been estimated by machining experiments against 0.45% carbon steel. The results indicate that flank wear resistance of these silver toughened ceramic cutting tool inserts is not proportional to an existing wear resistance parameter K_IC^3/4H^1/2. A modified relation between flank wear resistance, hardness, and fracture toughness has been suggested here for these cutting tool materials. The modification incorporates consideration of the volume fraction of the second phase and the porosity in the developed metal toughened ceramics.     

Numerical investigations of the stepped double torsion fracture toughness specimen

This study aims at investigating the fracture behaviour of double torsion specimens using the finite element method. Typical double torsion tests encompass a series of constant-thickness specimens to evaluate the material plane strain fracture toughness. In contrast, the concept of using a novel variable thickness stepped specimen aims at deducing the fracture toughness using a single specimen. In this work, the feasibility of this approach is examined and the effect of the number of steps and fracture thickness in a specimen upon the resulting conditional stress intensity factor is evaluated. The finite element models employed experimentally determined values of the fracture load to evaluate the conditional stress intensity factor of the specimen. Finite element predictions were compared with earlier experimental results using both cast aluminium silicon alloy and gray cast iron specimens and good matching was observed between experimental results and numerical predictions.     

Investigation of the mechanical properties of DGEBA-based epoxy resin with nanoclay additives

The present study investigated the effect of nanoclay additives on the mechanical properties of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) epoxy resin. The resin was cured with diethyltoluene diamine (DETDA) hardener and four material variations produced through the addition of four types of nanoclays, respectively. The nanocomposites were prepared by the in situ polymerisation method with the aid of mechanical shearing. The properties of the nanocomposites investigated included tensile modulus, tensile strength, tensile strain and fracture toughness (K_IC). It was observed that while the addition of nanoclay significantly increased the elastic modulus and fracture toughness of DGEBA epoxy resin, it also significantly reduced the failure strength and failure strain with increasing nanoclay level. Possible mechanisms for the improvement and degradation of these properties of the epoxy–clay nanocomposite materials are discussed.     

Fracture toughness of cast aluminium alloys

An investigation was carried out to evaluate the fracture toughness of cast aluminium alloys of different microstructural complexity, brought about by alloy constitution and cooling rate of castings. In all cases the three-point bend specimens, which had a thickness of 15 mm, did not provide valid plane — strain stress intensity factor values. The fracture susceptibility at a given stress level reckoned in terms of the conditional plane strain stress intensity factor (K _Q) was found to be lowest in aluminium-4.5% copper alloy castings and the susceptibility increased with increase in microstructural complexity. Casting cooling rate in these castings is likely to affect the damage potential of a given defect at yield stress to a greater extent than the fracture susceptibility at a given stress.     

Plane strain fracture toughness test procedures for particulate metal matrix composites

Abstract

Procedures for plane strain fracture toughness tests on a number of particulate reinforced aluminium alloy metal matrix composites (MMCs) have been examined. Measurements of toughness are reported on a range of particulate aluminium alloy MMCs and the results are compared with validity criteria in standards for metallic materials. In particular, the effect of testpiece thickness was studied in a 6000 and a 2000 series aluminium alloy containing, respectively, 25 and 30% silicon carbide. The results are compared with other published work on the toughness of particulate reinforced MMCs.

MST/1225     

Effect of long-term stress and temperature exposure on the fracture toughness of Ti-62222 alloy

Fracture toughness tests were conducted on a Ti-62222 (titanium alloy) sheet being considered for use in high temperature aircraft applications in the as received condition and after exposing the pre-cracked specimens to a sustained stress intensity, K, level between 55 and 60.5 MPa for 200 h at 350°C. It was concluded that the fracture toughness does not degrade as a result of exposure to high temperature and the K levels in this material. The tensile strength in the exposed condition also remained the same as in the as received condition.     

Stress corrosion cracking model in 7075 aluminium alloy

The stress corrosion cracking is a typical fracture process in metals and alloys. Among aluminium alloys, the 7075 alloy, presents a high performance in the mechanical properties but it is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. This paper presents a semiempiric model of crack growth by stress corrosion cracking for the above alloy. This model only uses macroscopic parameters from fracture mechanic theory and experimental tests which are easy to obtain. The model quantifies the fissure rate related to environmental condition, microstructure and loading level, permitting the evaluation of the crack growth process at different environmental conditions and heat treatments. The model results are compared with the experimental data obtained. The theoretical model reproduces adequately the stress corrosion cracking process for the 7075 alloy.     

Ductile–brittle fatigue and fracture behaviour of aluminium/PMMA bimaterial 3PB specimens

Fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth tests and numerical simulations on 3PB specimens were carried out to study the behaviour of a crack lying perpendicular to the interface in a ductile/brittle bimaterial. Polymethylmethacrylate acrylic (PMMA) and aluminium alloy 2024 T531 were joined together using epoxy resin. A precrack was introduced into the ductile material and tests were carried out to obtain fracture toughness and fatigue properties. The body force method and elastic–plastic finite-element analyses were used to simulate the experimental stress intensity K_I and cracking behaviour under monotonic and cyclic loads. It was found that the bimaterial fatigue crack growth rate is higher than that for monolithic aluminium 2024 but lower than the rate for a monolithic PMMA. This agreed with the trend for the fracture toughness values and was consistent with the numerical method results. The initial Mode I stable ductile cracking in the aluminium appears to ‘jump’ the interface and continues under mixed fracture Mode (I and II) in the PMMA material up to the final failure. A consistency between the simulation methods has indicated that the bimaterial fatigue crack growth is dominantly elastic with a small plastic zone near the crack tip.