Spatially resolved high-resolution x-ray spectroscopy of high-current plasma-focus discharges

Soft x-ray emission from a Mather-type plasma-focus device (PF-1000) operated at ～400?kJ was measured. The high density and temperature plasma were generated by the discharge in the deuterium-argon gas mixture in the modified (high-current) plasma-focus configuration. A spherically bent mica crystal spectrograph viewing the axial output of the pinch region was used to measure the x-ray spectra. Spatially resolved spectra including the characteristic x-ray lines of highly ionized Ar and continua were recorded by means of an x-ray film. The x-ray emission of PF-1000 device was studied at different areas of the pinch.     

Wide band focusing x-ray spectrograph with spatial resolution

A new, wide spectral bandwidth x-ray spectrograph, the wide-bandwidth focusing spectrograph with spatial resolution (WB-FSSR), based on spherically bent mica crystals, is described. The wide bandwidth is achieved by combining three crystals to form a large aperture dispersive element. Since the WB-FSSR covers a wide spectral band, it is very convenient for application as a routine diagnostic tool in experiments in which the desired spectral coverage is different from one test to the next. The WB-FSSR has been tested in imploding wire-array experiments on a 1 MA pulsed power machine, and x-ray spectra were recorded in the 1-20 A spectral band using different orders of mica crystal reflection. Using a two mirror-symmetrically placed WB-FSSR configuration, it was also possible to distinguish between a real spectral shift and a shift of recorded spectral lines caused by the spatial distribution of the radiating plasma. A spectral resolution of about 2000 was demonstrated and a spatial resolution of approximately 100 microm was achieved in the spectral band of 5-10 A in second order of mica reflection. A simple method of numerical analysis of spectrograph capability is proposed.     

One-shot spectrometer for several elements using an integrated conical crystal analyzer

Time-resolved x-ray spectrometry using an ultrastrong x-ray source such as an x-ray free electron laser is one of the new trends in the field of x-ray physics. To achieve such time-resolved measurement, the development of an one-shot spectrometer with a wide wavelength range, high efficiency, and good energy resolution is an essential prerequisite. Here we developed an integrated conical Ge crystal analyzer consisting of several conical rings, which were connected using spline surfaces to form a single body using our previously developed hot deformation technique, which can form a Si or Ge wafer into an arbitrary and accurate shape. We simultaneously focused several characteristic lines from an alloy sample onto different positions on a small x-ray charge-coupled device with very high image brightness (gain relative to planar analyzer: 100) and a good spatial resolution of 9-13 eV. The small radius of curvature of the crystal (28-50 mm) enabled us to realize a very short sample-detector distance of 214.4 mm. The present result shows the possibility of realizing a new focusing x-ray crystal spectrograph that can control the focal position as desired.     

Quantitative measurement of hard x-ray spectra for high intensity laser produced plasma

X-ray line spectra ranging from 17 to 77 keV were quantitatively measured with a Laue spectrometer, composed of a cylindrically curved crystal and a detector. Either a visible CCD detector coupled with a CsI phosphor screen or an imaging plate can be chosen, depending on the signal intensities and exposure times. The absolute sensitivity of the spectrometer system was calibrated using pre-characterized laser-produced x-ray sources and radioisotopes. The integrated reflectivity for the crystal is in good agreement with predictions by an open code for x-ray diffraction. The energy transfer efficiency from incident laser beams to hot electrons, as the energy transfer agency for specific x-ray line emissions, is derived as a consequence of this work.     

A grazing incidence spectrograph for recording spectra in the range of 5–50 nm

A wide-range grazing-incidence spectrograph based on a spherical grating has been developed for recording integrated (over time) line spectra in the region of 5–50 nm. Resolution of the spectrograph λ/Δλ has been determined; at a wavelength of 5 nm, it exceeds 500 units. The spectrograph has been used to analyze line spectra of multiply charged ions for strong resonance lines in the range of 15–20 nm and record the line of X-ray lasing on the 3p-3s transition of a Ne-like Ar ion with wavelength λ = 46.9 nm.     

分波段式中阶梯光栅原子发射光谱仪

受探测器发展水平的限制,以中阶梯光栅光谱仪为分光模块的ICP-AES电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱仪（ICP-AES）难以实现宽波段内多元素的同时测量。本文对现有中阶梯光栅光谱仪进行了改进,设计出一种适用于ICP-AES多元素同时测量的分波段式中阶梯光栅光谱仪。通过改变棱镜的入射角度,将系统波长扩展为200~900 nm,光谱分辨率为25 000,突破了现有探测器尺寸的限制,实现了宽波段范围内的多元素快速测量。将中阶梯光栅光谱仪与固态ICP光源组合,进行了系统波长标定与化学试样测试。实验结果表明：波长测试误差小于0.01 nm,满足化学元素精确判读要求;分波段式中阶梯光栅光谱仪在保持原有仪器性能的前提下,增宽了仪器的有效光谱探测范围,为多元素的同时测量提供了有效手段。     

"Derived spectra" software tools for detecting spatial and spectral features in spectrum images

A spectrum image is recorded as an x-y array of beam locations at each of which a spectrum of radiation is recorded as stimulated by the beam. The large database or "datacube" that results from a single image presents a significant challenge to the analyst to recover information efficiently, especially in the case where a true unknown is examined. This paper describes a class of "derived spectra" software tools that can aid the analyst in recognizing both common and rare features within the datacube. A derived spectrum tool creates a spectrum-like display (intensity vs. channel number) in which the intensity (e.g., x-ray counts) at a particular channel (e.g., x-ray photon energy) is calculated from all of or a subset of the pixel intensities measured for that channel. Derived spectra tools considered include the SUM, MAXIMUM PIXEL, RUNNING SUM, and RUNNING MAXIMUM. The SUM-derived spectrum is useful for recognizing common features of the datacube, while the MAXIMUM PIXEL-and RUNNING MAXIMUM-derived spectra can locate rare, unanticipated features, which may occur as infrequently as being present at a single pixel in the original datacube.     

中阶梯光栅光谱仪的光学设计

为了在更宽波段范围内获得较高的分辨率,实现全谱直读,对中阶梯光栅光谱仪进行了研究。简述了中阶梯光栅及中阶梯光栅光谱仪的基本原理,分析并比较了这种光谱仪与普通平面闪耀光栅光谱仪的区别。利用光学成像原理与消像差理论设计了Czerney-Turner结构形式的中型高分辨率中阶梯光栅光谱仪原理样机的光学系统。该光学系统工作在原子谱线最为密集的200～500nm波长处;为简化计算,在设计中消除了350nm波长的所有像差;光线对中阶梯光栅在准Littrow条件下入射,以获得高衍射效率;使用折反射棱镜作为交叉色散元件来分离重叠的级次,在CCD探测器上获得了二维光谱面。该光学系统有较好的平场特性及点对点成像能力,在整个工作波长分辨率可达到2000～15000,满足设计要求。该仪器可用于原子发射和吸收光谱的研究工作,通过替换不同的探测器及增加外围电路与软件平台,仪器的工作性能可进一步提高。     

Focusing x-ray spectrograph for laser fusion experiments

X-ray spectra from laser fusion targets are normally measured with flat crystal (nonfocusing) spectrographs. We describe here the characteristics of a focusing spectrograph which is capable of recording wide band spectra with significantly higher sensitivity. Measuring spectra in the (10-11) A range from glass microballoons imploded by a two-beam Nd:Glass laser system we find intensity per unit area on film about 100 times higher with a curved mica than with a flat mica spectrograph.     

K-shell emission x-ray imaging of Z-pinch plasmas with a pinhole and a logarithmic spiral crystal

An in-chamber, mini x-ray imaging instrument employs a pinhole and a logarithmic spiral crystal has been developed for obtaining K-shell line images of the imploding aluminum wire array on the "Yang" accelerator. The logarithmic spiral crystal acts as a monochromator and a non-dispersive mirror that reflects the pinhole image to a x-ray film detector with a very narrow photon energy bandwidth (<1 eV, mainly determined by the width of rocking curve of the crystal). Two imaging configurations with the use of Quartz (10 ?10) crystal and Mica (002) crystal are designed, respectively, to image the Al Ly(α2) line (1727.7 eV) emission and Al He(α) intercombination line (1588.3 eV) emission. The primary experimental data corresponding to these two configurations are presented and discussed.     

Infrared Digital Spectrograph for Hydroxyl Rotational Temperature Measurements

A digital spectrograph designed for registration of nightglow intensity variations and estimation of the atmospheric temperature by the rotational structure of the hydroxyl emission luminosity is described. The spectrograph is based on an MP-2 monochromator and an ST-6 CCD detector. The instrument records the nightglow spectrum in a wavelength range of 800–1000 nm, in which strong molecular hydroxyl (OH) bands emitted at the mesopause height (87 km) are present. The rotational temperature of OH is estimated by the least square fitting of the synthetic spectrum constructed for various temperatures to an experimental one. The temperature measurement errors are 2–10 K.     

中阶梯光栅光谱仪的谱图还原与波长标定

研究了与中阶梯光栅光谱仪相关的二维重叠光谱的实时还原与波长自动标定技术。基于分光系统主色散及横向色散规律及它们之间的相互关系,建立了3个变换矩阵M1,M2和M3,由此给出了中阶梯光栅光谱仪面阵CCD上所有接收点处空间坐标与波长关系的谱图矩阵Mλ-XY,利用中心波长与自由光谱区特性获得了理想的无重叠谱图数据模型。提出了信号光斑识别方法,并对信号光斑位置坐标进行准确定位;结合所建立的谱图数据模型,实现了对二维重叠谱图的快速还原与标定。实验结果表明:该方法在中阶梯光栅光谱仪谱图分析中不仅实时性强,而且波长精度可达0.01nm,满足中阶梯光栅光谱仪高分辨率、全谱瞬态直读等要求。     

Invited article: the fast readout low noise camera as a versatile x-ray detector for time resolved dispersive extended x-ray absorption fine structure and diffraction studies of dynamic problems in materials science, chemistry, and catalysis

Originally conceived and developed at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) as an "area" detector for rapid x-ray imaging studies, the fast readout low noise (FReLoN) detector of the ESRF [J.-C. Labiche, ESRF Newsletter 25, 41 (1996)] has been demonstrated to be a highly versatile and unique detector. Charge coupled device (CCD) cameras at present available on the public market offer either a high dynamic range or a high readout speed. A compromise between signal dynamic range and readout speed is always sought. The parameters of the commercial cameras can sometimes be tuned, in order to better fulfill the needs of specific experiments, but in general these cameras have a poor duty cycle (i.e., the signal integration time is much smaller than the readout time). In order to address scientific problems such as time resolved experiments at the ESRF, a FReLoN camera has been developed by the Instrument Support Group at ESRF. This camera is a low noise CCD camera that combines high dynamic range, high readout speed, accuracy, and improved duty cycle in a single image. In this paper, we show its application in a quasi-one-dimensional sense to dynamic problems in materials science, catalysis, and chemistry that require data acquisition on a time scale of milliseconds or a few tens of milliseconds. It is demonstrated that in this mode the FReLoN can be applied equally to the investigation of rapid changes in long range order (via diffraction) and local order (via energy dispersive extended x-ray absorption fine structure) and in situations of x-ray hardness and flux beyond the capacity of other detectors.     

Multichannel linear detector for x-ray spectroscopy

This paper considers a new linear multichannel x-ray detector designed on the basis of a BLPP-369M4 silicon photodiode array (2612 photodiodes, array pitch 12.5 µm, height 4 mm, and dynamic range 10⁴). The structure and characteristics of the multichannel detector are given, along with the Kα1,2, Kβ ₁, and Kβ ₅ x-ray emission lines and a K-edge absorption spectrum of metallic copper recorded on a universal URS-2I spectrometer using this detector. The resolution and the signal/noise ratio of these spectra are superior to those of spectra recorded by an SRPP-21 gas ionization counter at the same recording time. The detector has a spatial resolution of 20 µm and an x-ray detection limit to equal 1 quantum at λ = 1.54 Å. It is suitable for studying the fine structure of absorption spectra at 1–10 Å.     

Scaling studies with the dual crystal spectrometer at the OMEGA-EP laser facility

The dual crystal spectrometer (DCS) is an approved diagnostic at the OMEGA and the OMEGA-EP laser facilities for the measurement of high energy x-rays in the 11-90 keV energy range, e.g., for verification of the x-ray spectrum of backlighter targets of point projection radiography experiments. DCS has two cylindrically bent transmission crystal channels with image plate detectors at distances behind the crystals close to the size of the respective Rowland circle diameters taking advantage of the focusing effect of the cylindrically bent geometry. DCS, with a source to crystal distance of 1.2 m, provides the required energy dispersion for simultaneous detection of x-rays in a low energy channel (11-45 keV) and a high-energy channel (19-90 keV). A scaling study is described for varied pulse length with unchanged laser conditions (energy, focusing). The study shows that the Kα line intensity is not strongly dependent on the length of the laser pulse.     

Wave-dispersive x-ray spectrometer for simultaneous acquisition of several characteristic lines based on strongly and accurately shaped Ge crystal

Si and Ge are widely used as analyzing crystals for x-rays. Drastic and accurate shaping of Si or Ge gives significant advance in the x-ray field, although covalently bonded Si or Ge crystals have long been believed to be not deformable to various shapes. Recently, we developed a deformation technique for obtaining strongly and accurately shaped Si or Ge wafers of high crystal quality, and the use of the deformed wafer made it possible to produce fine-focused x-rays. In the present study, we prepared a cylindrical Ge wafer with a radius of curvature of 50 mm, and acquired fluorescent x-rays simultaneously from four elements by combining the cylindrical Ge wafer with a position-sensitive detector. The energy resolution of the x-ray fluorescence spectrum was as good as that obtained using a flat single crystal, and its gain was over 100. The demonstration of the simultaneous acquisition of high-resolution x-ray fluorescence spectra indicated various possibilities of x-ray spectrometry, such as one-shot x-ray spectroscopy and highly efficient wave-dispersive x-ray spectrometers.     

One-dimensional space resolving flat-field holographic grating soft x-ray framing camera spectrograph for laser plasma diagnostics

A 1D space resolving x-ray spectrum diagnostic system has been developed to study the radiation opacity of hot plasma on SG-II laser facility. The diagnostic system consists of a 2400 lines/mm flat-field holographic grating and a gated microchannel plate coupled with an optical CCD and covers the wavelength range of 5-50 A?. The holographic grating was compared with a ruled one by measuring the emission spectra from a laser-produced molybdenum plasma. The results indicate that the holographic grating possesses better sensitivity than the ruled grating having nearly similar spectral resolution. The spectrograph has been used in radiative opacity measurement of Fe plasma. Simultaneous measurements of the backlight source and the transmission spectrum in appointed time range in one shot have been accomplished successfully with the holographic grating spectrometer. The 2p-3d transition absorption of Fe plasma near 15.5 A? in has been observed clearly.     

High-precision laser-assisted absolute determination of x-ray diffraction angles

A novel technique for absolute wavelength determination in high-precision crystal x-ray spectroscopy recently introduced has been upgraded reaching unprecedented accuracies. The method combines visible laser beams with the Bond method, where Bragg angles (θ and -θ) are determined without any x-ray reference lines. Using flat crystals this technique makes absolute x-ray wavelength measurements feasible even at low x-ray fluxes. The upgraded spectrometer has been used in combination with first experiments on the 1s2p(1)P(1) → 1s(2)(1)S(0) w-line in He-like argon. By resolving a minute curvature of the x-ray lines the accuracy reaches there the best ever reported value of 1.5 ppm. The result is sensitive to predicted second-order QED contributions at the level of two-electron screening and two-photon radiative diagrams and will allow for the first time to benchmark predicted binding energies for He-like ions at this level of precision.     

Temperature diagnostics of ECR plasma by measurement of electron bremsstrahlung

The x-ray bremsstrahlung spectrum emitted by the electron population in a 14.5 GHz ECR plasma source has been measured using a NaI(Tl) detector, and hence the electron temperature of the higher energy electron population in the plasma has been determined. The x-ray spectra for Ne and Ar gases have been systematically studied as a function of inlet gas pressure from 7 × 10(-7) mbar to 7 × 10(-5) mbar and for input microwave power ～1 W to ～300 W. At the highest input power and optimum pressure conditions, the end point bremsstrahlung energies are seen to reach ～700 keV. The estimated electron temperatures (T(e)) were found to be in the range 20 keV-80 keV. The T(e) is found to be peaking at a pressure of 1 × 10(-5) mbar for both gases. The T(e) is seen to increase with increasing input power in the intermediate power region, i.e., between 100 and 200 W, but shows different behaviour for different gases in the low and high power regions. Both gases show very weak dependence of electron temperature on inlet gas pressure, but the trends in each gas are different.     

Asymmetric-cut variable-incident-angle monochromator

A novel asymmetric-cut variable-incident-angle monochromator was constructed and tested in 1997 at the Advanced Photon Source of Argonne National Laboratory. The monochromator was originally designed as a high heat load monochromator capable of handling 5-10 kW beams from a wiggler source. This was accomplished by spreading the x-ray beam out on the surface an asymmetric-cut crystal and by using liquid metal cooling of the first crystal. The monochromator turned out to be a highly versatile monochromator that could perform many different types of experiments. The monochromator consisted of two 18° asymmetrically cut Si crystals that could be rotated about 3 independent axes. The first stage (Φ) rotates the crystal around an axis perpendicular to the diffraction plane. This rotation changes the angle of the incident beam with the surface of the crystal without changing the Bragg angle. The second rotation (Ψ) is perpendicular to the first and is used to control the shape of the beam footprint on the crystal. The third rotation (Θ) controls the Bragg angle. Besides the high heat load application, the use of asymmetrically cut crystals allows one to increase or decrease the acceptance angle for crystal diffraction of a monochromatic x-ray beam and allows one to increase or decrease the wavelength bandwidth of the diffraction of a continuum source like a bending-magnet beam or a normal x-ray-tube source. When the monochromator is used in the doubly expanding mode, it is possible to expand the vertical size of the double-diffracted beam by a factor of 10-15. When this was combined with a bending magnet source, it was possible to generate an 8 keV area beam, 16 mm wide by 26 mm high with a uniform intensity and parallel to 1.2 arc sec that could be applied in imaging experiments.