Cyclic-oxidation behavior of TiAl and of TiAl alloys

The cyclic-oxidation behavior of (in w/o) Ti-36Al, Ti-35Al-0.1C, Ti-35Al-1.4V-0.1C and Ti-35Al-5Nb-0.1C was studied between 800 and 1000° C in air. A few experiments were also performed in oxygen. Scale spallation after oxidation in air occurs during cooling on TiAl, TiAl-C, and TiAl-V at or close to the metal/scale interface when a critical scale thickness has been achieved. This process repeats and can lead to a stratified scale. These three materials form scales composed of an inward-growing fine-grain mixture of TiO₂-Al₂O₃ and an outward-growing coarse-grain TiO₂ layer or TiO₂+Al₂O₃ mixture. The TiAl-Nb alloy had a significantly different behavior. The scale on this material grew very slowly because a protective Al₂O₃ layer formed at the metal/scale interface. This behavior resulted in much better resistance to spallation because the critical scale thickness was reached only after a much longer time, and is different from the behavior of the other three alloys. Oxidation in air leads to slight nitridation of the subsurface zone beneath the scale. In comparison to oxidation in air, oxidation in oxygen improves the cyclicoxidation behavior. Whereas the scale formed in air was uniformly thick over the entire surface, the scale grown in oxygen varied locally in structure and thickness. A large fraction of the surface was covered with a thin Al₂O₃ layer, while the remaining part formed a two-layer scale similar to that formed in air. The results are discussed briefly in the light of a recently published model for scale spallation under compressive stress, however, quantitative estimations are not possible due to a lack of relevant data.     

Crystal growth of TiAl alloys

The growth of TiAl alloys over a range of Al concentrations has been considered for ingots processed by the floating zone technique. For Al-rich alloys, single crystals of γ-TiAl cannot be grown for compositions below Ti-54 at% Al since a banded microstructure forms due to the limitations imposed by the L + → γ peritectic reaction. However, near stoichemetric TiAl crystals can be grown by the traveling solvent method when using a TiAl---Co flux, although optimum processing conditions have not yet been realized. For Ti-rich alloys, evidence of a growth morphology consisting of β-phase dendrites embedded within a continuous matrix of the peritectic -phase is found for ingots processed up to 200 mm h⁻¹. The final lamellar orientation of the ingot is then determined by the orientation of the peritectic -phase and not by that of the leading β dendrites.     

The hydrogen embrittlement of titanium-based alloys

Titanium-based alloys provide an excellent combination of a high strength/weight ratio and good corrosion behavior, which makes these alloys among the most important advanced materials for a variety of aerospace, marine, industrial, and commercial applications. Although titanium is considered to be reasonably resistant to chemical attack, severe problems can arise when titanium-based alloys come in contact with hydrogen-containing environments, where they can pick up large amounts of hydrogen, especially at elevated temperatures. The severity and the extent of the hydrogen interaction with titanium-based alloys are directly related to the microstructure and composition of the titanium alloys. This paper addresses the hydrogen embrittlement of titanium-based alloys. The hydrogen-titanium interaction is reviewed, including the solubility of hydrogen in α and β phases of titanium and hydride formation. Also, the paper summarizes the detrimental effects of hydrogen in different titanium alloys. For more information, contact Dan Eliezer, Department of Materials Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel; +972-7-646-1467; fax +972-7-646-1475; e-mail deliezer@bgumail.bgu.ac.il.     

Bending embrittlement of as-welded FeAl alloys

The study on the liquid induced embrittlement in the as-welded six FeAl alloys was performed under constant applied loads using four-point beam bend apparatus. Exposure to two different liquid environments, i.e. relative humidity R.H. 98% water vapor and antirust oil WD40, was conducted. The weld metal in all FeAl alloys exhibits an excellent liquid embrittlement resistance greater than the base metals. The fractures in all FeAl alloy welds occurred at the base metal. The fractograph of WD40 induced brittlement is characterized by a transgranular cleavage fracture. However, the fractograph of R.H. 98% water vapor induced brittlement is characterized by an intergranular and transgranular mixed fracture mode.     

Rotating strength of forged TiAl alloys

In order to evaluate the rotating strength of TiAl alloys, mechanical and rotating burst testing were conducted on wrought TiAl having various microstructures. The rotating burst strength of the nearly lamellar (NL) structure was greater than near gamma (NG) or fully lamellar (FL) structures. The mechanical properties which have an affect on the rotating strength were yield strength and elongation, and only a slight amount of elongation allows the rotating burst characteristics of TiAl alloys to change from ceramic-like maximum stress dependency to metal-like mean stress dependency. It was estimated that forged NL–TiAl has greater rotating strength above 1000 K than superalloys in current use.     

Recent advances of wrought TiAl alloys

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Mechanism of isothermal oxidation of the intel-metallic TiAl and of TiAl alloys

The oxidation behavior of Ti36Al, Ti35Al-0.1C, Ti35Al-1.4V-0.1C, and Ti35 Al-5Nb-0.1C (mass-%) in air and oxygen has been studied between 700 and 1000°C with the major emphasis at 900°C. Generally an oxide scale consisting of two layers, an outward- and an inward-growing layer, formed. The outward-growing part of the scale consisted mainly of TiO₂ (rutile), while the inward-growing part is composed of a mixture of TiO₂ and -Al₂O₃. A barrier layer of Al₂O₃ on TiAl between the inner and the outer part of the scale was visible for up to 300 hr. Under certain conditions, the Al₂O₃ barrier dissolved and re-precipitated in the outer TiO₂ layer. This shift leads to an effect similar to breakaway oxidation. Only the alloy containing Nb formed a longlasting, protective Al₂O₃ layer, which was established at the metal/scale interface after an incubation period of 80–100 hr. During this time, Nb was enriched in the subsurface zone up to approximately 20 w/o. The growth of the oxide scale on TiAl-V obeyed a parabolic law, because no Al₂O₃ barrier layer formed; large Al₂O₃ particles were part of the outward-growing layer. A brittle 2-Ti₃Al-layer rich in O formed beneath the oxide scale as a result of preferential Al oxidation particularly when oxidized in oxygen. Oxidation in air can lead also to formation of nitrides beneath the oxide scale. The nitridation can vary between the formation of isolated nitride particles and of a metal/Ti₂AlN/ TiN/oxide, scale-layer system. Under certain conditions, nitride-layer formation seemed to favor protective Al₂O₂₃ formation at the metal/scale interface, however, in general nitridation was detrimental with the consequence that oxidation was generally more rapid in air than in oxygen.     

Effect of microstructure on environmental embrittlement in a TiAl base alloy

The effect of different microstructure on environmental embrittlement in a chromium-containing TiAl alloy has been analyzed. The alloys having fully lamellar, nearly lamellar and duplex structure exhibited no apparent difference in the fracture strength and the tensile elongation at two test environments, vacuum and air. The near gamma alloy shows more strength higher and ductility in the vacuum than in the air. Tensile ductility increased to 3.5% in the vacuum, compared with 0.3% in the air. It can be argued that the gamma phase itself has relatively high intrinsic ductility, although a relationship with the ductility of alpha-2 is not yet clarified. An important factor to determine the environmental effect is the morphology and the volume fraction of alpha-2 phase in the alloy.     

Strength and ductility in TiAl alloys

Tensile behavior of two-phase TiAl alloys at room temperature (RT) is analyzed for duplex and lamellar microstructural forms. The Hall-Petch relationship with high constants in fully-lamellar material is explained as a combined function of grain-size and deformation-anisotropy. The low ductility and its inverse relationship with grain size are explained using the anisotropic tensile properties of lamellar structures and assuming that the fracture is controlled by the crack nucleation process involving the pile-ups of dislocations under shear stress. The crack initiation toughness and associated strains near the crack tip are used to explain the inverse relationship between ductility and toughness.     

Solidification of high Nb containing TiAl based alloys

Abstract

Casting of titanium aluminides is an attractive processing route for production of near net shape components: turbocharger wheels, valves and aero-engine components are presently at the heart of casting developments. Among the casting alloys under consideration are a number of niobium rich TiAl based alloys that contain low boron additions for grain refinement and minor additions of other elements to enhance creep resistance. An essential condition that must be met to achieve grain refinement is a solidification pathway competed via β-(Ti), e.g. a pathway that avoids peritectic growth of α-Ti. In this contribution we describe the microsegregation analysis of a unidirectionally solidified sample from the ternary alloy Ti–45Al–8Nb. The corresponding solidification path is discussed on the basis of thermodynamic calculations and is shown to closely follow Scheil predictions with some amount of back-diffusion for aluminium. The analysis indicates that the nucleation undercooling for peritectic α (Ti) in the deep mushy zone is significant.     

First-principles study of shear deformation in TiAl alloys

The stress-induced phase-transition γ-TiAl ↔ ₂-Ti₃Al in TiAl alloys was systemically studied by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. We found that the key role in such phase-transition is the alloy composition. Firstly through studying the relationship between the formation energy, structure (fct and hcp) and alloy composition (Ti:Al = 1–3), we acquired that the stability of fct or hcp phases depends on the Ti:Al ratios. When the ratio meets about 1.5, the formation energies of fct and hcp phases are very close, which means both structures have the similar stability. Further shear deformation calculations on such alloys with different structures and compositions show that phases with Ti:Al value close to 1.5 have smaller dislocation nucleation energies and lower maximum shear strengths than those of the stoichiometric TiAl and Ti₃Al phases. Such results not only reveal the composition's effect on the reversible phase transition, but also exhibit the intrinsic controlling role on the alloying properties.     

Impurity-induced embrittlement of heat-affected zone in welded Mo-based alloys

Characteristics of strength and plasticity, fracture mode and grain boundary segregation for two Mo-based alloys with different bulk compositions, recrystallized by either furnace annealing or rapid heating followed by quenching, are studied as a function of heating temperature by mechanical test, scanning electron microscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy and computer simulation. There exists an essential difference in both segregation behaviour and mechanical properties between as-annealed and as-quenched structural states. The rapid quenching causes strong oversaturation of the grain boundaries. In this case, intergranular enrichment is approximately twice as high as that in as-annealed alloys, and spontaneous nucleation of brittle microcracks is observed at certain embrittled boundaries. The proposed high-speed heat treatments are considered as a promising method for modelling of the structural states of the heat-affected zone of weldments. The results obtained are discussed from the viewpoint of possible reasons of impurity-induced embrittlement of Mo-based alloys.     

Microstructural control and mechanical properties of dual-phase TiAl alloys

This paper summarizes our recent work on the effects of microstructural features on the mechanical properties of TiAl alloys prepared by powder and ingot metallurgy. TiAl alloys based on Ti-47Al-2Cr-2Nb (at%) were alloyed with small amounts of Ta, W, and B additions for control of alloy phases and microstructure. The alloys were processed by hot extrusion above and below T, followed by short- and long-term heat treatments at temperatures to 1350 °C in vacuum. The microstructural features in the lamellar structures were characterized by metallography, SEM and TEM, and the mechanical properties were determined by tensile tests at temperatures to 1000 °C. The tensile elongation at room temperature is mainly controlled by the colony size, showing an increase in ductility with decreasing colony size. The yield strength, on the other hand, is sensitive to the interlamellar spacing. Hall-Petch relationships hold well for both yield strength and tensile elongation at room and elevated temperatures. TiAl alloys with refined colony size and ultrafine lamellar structures possess excellent mechanical properties for structural applications at elevated temperatures.     

Microstructure and interface reaction of investment casting TiAl alloys

In order to research the microstructure of TiAI alloy and TiAl-mould reaction between TiAI and ceramic mould shells prepared with the low cost binder in investment casting, the ceramic mould shells were prepared with low cost binder and refractory materials. Using two kinds of casting methods （gravity casting and centrifugal casting）, the titanium aluminum alloys with rare earth element （Ti-47.5Al-2Cr-2Nb-0.3Y and Ti-45Al-5Nb-0.3Y） were cast into the mould shells. The microstructures of investment casting titanium aluminum alloys were observed by optical microscope （OM）. The distributions of elements of topping investment on the surfaces of titanium aluminum alloys castings were analyzed by the means of electron probe micro-analysis （EPMA）, and the mechanical properties were studied. The results show that the microstructures of two kinds of titanium aluminum alloys are both lamella shape, and lamella is thin. The thickness of reaction and diffusing layer of Ti-47.5Al-2Cr-2Nb-0.3Y alloy is about 80 μm, and that of Ti-45Al-5Nb-0.3Y is less than 30 μm.     

Review of alloy and process development of TiAl alloys

The improved understanding of the factors that control microstructure and properties of TiAl alloys is reviewed together with current work aimed at developing both wrought and cast products. It is suggested that the choice of alloy composition is perhaps far simpler than the complex literature would suggest and the factors that underlie alloy choice will be explained. These factors include the processability of the alloy as well as the properties and examples will be given where this dual approach of defining both processability and properties is central to the successful application. In addition other aspects of processing that will be discussed include cost-effective processing, accuracy of compositional control and control of processing conditions appropriate for the specific alloy. Some current applications of TiAl components are summarised before considering some of the challenges still remaining for TiAl-based alloys.     

Economic net-shape forming of TiAl alloys for automotive parts

Alpha-case formations between investment molds and TiAl alloys were investigated for the economic TiAl alloys net-shape forming. In the case of TiAl alloys, there were no α-case formation reactions. There were neither interstitial nor substitutional α-case formations since TiAl alloys have both negligible solubility of oxygen and low activity in molten states. The fluidity of TiAl alloys is increased with mold preheating temperature since they have a peritectic reaction that appears in the form of envelopment, surrounding each particles of the primary constituent. The results of the investment casting of TiAl alloys confirm that the casting route in our study can be an effective approach for the economic net-shape forming of TiAl alloys.     

Advances in phase relationship for high Nb-containing TiAl alloys

γ-TiAl alloys,including two categories(the conventional TiAl and the high Nb-containing TiAl(high Nb-TiAl)),are technologically intriguing because of their applications at high temperatures.Specifically,the service temperature of the high Nb-TiAl alloys is 60-100℃higher than that of conventional TiAl alloys.Recently developed TiAl alloys,for example TNB,TNM,β-γ alloys,belong to the high Nb-TiAl alloys,displaying similar behavior in phase transformation,strengthening,oxidation at high temperatures,and relationships between composition,microstructure,and mechanical properties.This work presents an in-depth review of the high Nb-TiAl alloys regarding the advances in phase diagram,formation mechanism of the new γ_1 phase,microsegregation induced by adding a high content of alloying element Nb,and the mechanism of the B2/ω phase formation.Some challenges in developing the high Nb-TiAl alloys are also discussed.