Organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of wheat breads supplemented with soybean and barley flour

Supplementations of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flours at 5, 10, 15 and 20% levels were carried out to test the effects on organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of the supplemented bread. Additions of 15% barley flour, 10% soy flour (full fat and defatted), 15% barley plus full fat soy flour and 15% barley plus defatted soy flour to wheat flour produced acceptable breads. However, substitution of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flour separately and in combinations at 20% levels did not produce organoleptically acceptable bread. Various nutritional parameters, such as protein, fat, total lysine, protein digestibility (in vitro), sugars, starch digestibility (in vitro), total and available minerals, antinutrients, dietary fibre and β-glucan were determined in supplemented and control bread. Increasing the level of substitution from 5 to 10% of full fat and defatted soy flour to wheat flour significantly (P<0.05) increased protein (from 12.1 to 13.7 and 12.4 to 13.8%), lysine (from 2.74 to 3.02 and 2.76–3.05 mg/100 g protein) and total calcium (from 70.2 to 81.4 and 71.9–81.8 mg/100 g) contents. However, there was also an increase in phytic acid (238–260 and 233–253 mg/100 g), polyphenol (324–331 and 321–329 mg/100 g) and trypsin inhibitor activity (193–204 and 193–198 TIU/g). When barley flour was substituted separately, and in combinations, with full fat and defatted soy flour up to 15%, this significantly increased the contents of protein, total lysine, dietary fibre and β-glucan. It may be concluded that breads supplemented with barley and defatted soy flour, up to a 15% level, are organoleptically and nutritionally acceptable.     

Enrichment of Egyptian ‘Balady’ bread. Part 2. Nutritional values and biological evaluation of enrichment with decorticated cracked broadbeans flour (Vicia fabaL./ 1

Decorticated cracked broadbeans flour (DCBF) was used to replace 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of the wheat flour (WF) in the Egyptian ‘Balady’ bread. The nutrient composition of DCBF, WF, wheat bread, and DCBF‐fortified bread was studied. When DCBF fortification was increased from 0 to 20%, there was an increase of 36% in protein, 18% in fat, 123% in calcium, 52% in phosphorus and 40% in iron contents. DCBF contained greater amounts [g/16 g N] of lysine and histidine compared to WF. All essential amino acids increased when DCBF was substituted for WF from 0 to 20%, except methionine, which decreased. The biological quality of the breads was investigated. The protein efficiency ratio for 10%. DCBF bread (1.60) was found to be significantly greater (P > 0.05) than that of 5%‐DCBF bread (1.48) and wheat bread (1.17).     

Effects of hull-less barley flour and flakes on bread nutritional composition and sensory properties

Barley is a desirable food ingredient, with health benefits provided by a β-glucan fibre fraction. A hull-less barley flour and flakes were incorporated into white and wholegrain wheat bread in quantities usually applied in practice. The breads were evaluated for nutritional composition and sensory properties and compared to standard products as controls. The supplemented breads were high in fibre, zinc and selenium content. It was estimated that a 300-gram daily portion of such breads could meet up to 40% of dietary recommended intakes for selenium and 70–75% of recommended daily values for β-glucan. Regarding sensory quality, the only significant differences (p < 0.05) were higher taste and lower volume in the white supplemented breads and lower crumb elasticity in the white bread made with barley flour. Hull-less barley can substantially contribute to an adequate intake of selenium and β-glucan. In addition, supplemented breads were not found to pose a significant risk, with regard to excessive intakes of heavy elements (Pb, Cd, As).     

Effects of two barley β-glucan isolates on wheat flour dough and bread properties

The effects of wheat flour fortification with two different molecular weight barley β-glucan isolates (1.00 × 10⁵, BG-100 and 2.03 × 10⁵, BG-200) on the rheological properties of dough and bread characteristics, using flours from two wheat cultivars that differ in their breadmaking quality, have been examined. The farinograph water absorption of doughs and the moisture content and water activity of the breads increased with increasing β-glucan content; the β-glucan isolate with the higher molecular weight (BG-200) exerted a greater effect than did BG-100. The addition of β-glucans to the dough formula increased the development time, the stability, the resistance to deformation and the extensibility of the poor breadmaking quality doughs, as well as the specific volumes of the respective breads, exceeding even that of the good breadmaking cultivar. Furthermore, the colour of the bread crumbs got darker and their structure became coarser, whereas the bread crumb firmness decreased with increasing level of β-glucan addition. Generally, the BG-200 was more effective in increasing the specific bread volume and reducing the crumb firmness, especially when used to fortify the poor breadmaking quality flour. The results further indicate a requirement for optimisation of the fortified doughs (level and molecular size of the β-glucan) to maximise bread quality attributes (loaf volume, texture, and staling events).     

Nutritional,microbial and sensory attributes of bread fortified with defatted watermelon seed flour

The utilisation of natural food supplements to fortify staples is considered as one of the effective means of dealing with global food nutrient deficiency. Herein, we report the nutritional, microbial and sensorial characteristics of defatted watermelon seed fortified bread. The protein content and level of micronutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium increased with increasing proportion of watermelon seed flour in the bread. Notably, calcium resulted as the highest micronutrient in the bread samples, whereas the content of iron in the fortified samples improved significantly. The defatted watermelon seed flour had a high iron content of about 12.1 mg/100 g as compared to the normal (unfortified) bread of 0.01 mg/100 g. The total microbial count results for all the fortification levels complied with the acceptable microbial quality requirement. Lastly, the consumer acceptability test did not show any significant difference between all levels of fortification with watermelon seed flour.     

The enrichment of wheat cookies with high-oleic sunflower seed and hull-less barley flour: Impact on nutritional composition,content of heavy elements and physical properties

Cookies prepared with white or wholegrain wheat flours and substituted with high-oleic sunflower seed (10 g/100 g and 30 g/100 g supplementation levels) and hull-less barley flour (30 g/100 g and 50 g/100 g levels) were evaluated for nutritional properties, physical and sensory attributes. Sunflower seed significantly increased the contents of Se, Zn, Mg, and Ca, as well as the contents of α-tocopherol and fat in cookies. The contents of Se, Cu, Fe, Zn and β-glucan were raised in cookies by barley supplementation. It was estimated that 100 g of barley and sunflower seed-supplemented cookies can meet about 18–49% of dietary reference intake (DRI) for Se. Both supplemented cookies were found not to pose a significant risk, with regard to excessive intakes of heavy elements (Pb, Cd, As, Hg). In addition, the supplementation with sunflower seed improved sensory properties of the cookies.     

Microstructure and nutrient composition of hairless canary seed and its potential as a blending flour for food use

Canary seed is a true cereal with unique composition. The current study employed light and fluorescence microscopy to visualise starch, protein, phenolics and phytate in hairless canary seed (CDC Maria), a cultivar developed potentially for food use. Macronutrients, minerals and vitamins were evaluated in the developed cultivar and compared with a commercial hairy canary seed, cv. Keet. A control common wheat, cv. Katepwa, was grown adjacent to the canary seed varieties. The compositions of the two canary seed varieties were found to be similar with an average of 55.8 g/100 g of starch, 23.7% g/100 g of protein, 7.9% of crude fat, 7.3 g/100 g of total dietary fibre, 1.8 g/100 g of soluble sugar and 2.3 g/100 g of total ash in the whole grain. Regardless of the milling fraction (whole grain flour, white flour or bran), canary seed had more protein and crude fat and less starch, total dietary fibre and soluble sugar than had wheat. It also had higher concentrations of several minerals and vitamins than did wheat. The structure of the canary seed grain exhibited compound starch granules and protein bodies embedded in a protein matrix similar to that of the oat kernel. Baking tests showed that bread made with 100% hairless canary seed flour was significantly lower in loaf volume and crust and crumb colour than was wheat bread. However, bread with loaf volume, specific volume and crust colour comparable to those of the bread control was achieved by using up to 25% of hairless canary seed or 15% of roasted canary seed flour, thus demonstrating its potential for food applications.     

Bread quality by substituting normal and waxy hull-less barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum Vulgare</Emphasis> L.) flours

Substitution of regular and waxy hull-less barley flour was evaluated in pan breads prepared from the blends of barley cvs. Saessal (SSWB) and Saechalssal (SCWB) with wheat flour. Effect of barley type and barley flour level (10, 20, and 30%) was investigated on compositions, dough development, and bread qualities. Compared to 100% wheat flour, increasing barley flour increased ash from 0.36 to 0.67%, and β-glucan from 0.1 to 1.91%. Pasting viscosity exhibited higher peak viscosity, through, and breakdown in barley flour blends, showing higher viscosity in SSWB than SCWB. Optimum water absorption and mixing time were increased in barley-wheat flour blends. Substitution of 10% barley flour had no significant difference from wheat bread in bread volume and crumb firmness statistically (p<0.05). The SSWB showed better bread qualities in terms of bread volume and crumb firmness than SCWB. The β-glucan content was 0.13% in wheat bread, but ranged from 0.45 to 1.05% in barley breads.     

Bioavailability of zinc in fiber‐enriched bread fortified with zinc sulphate

The present study aimed to reduce the caloric value of bread by substituting a part of wheat flour with artichoke bracts at levels of 5%, 10% and 15% without sacrificing taste, texture or acceptability. Moreover, considerable trials had been made to reduce zinc deficiency in wheat bread and fiber‐enriched bread and also to study the effect of fiber on zinc bioavailability. Therefore, zinc sulphate was added to bread at levels of 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 mg/100 g edible portion. The results from this study show that: (i) The addition of artichoke bracts to wheat flour increased the water absorption, arrival time, development time, and weakening of the dough as the level of artichoke bracts increased, while dough stability decreased. (ii) Mixing wheat flour with increasing amount of artichoke bracts increased the content of protein, fiber and total essential amino acids, also all essential amino acids increased in wheat bread and fiber‐enriched bread after fortification with zinc sulphate at a level of 100 mg/100 g edible portion except methionine, threonine and tyrosine. (iii) The best level of zinc sulphate to give the best bioavailability for zinc is 100 mg/100 g edible portion. (iv) Evaluation of fortified wheat bread and fiber‐enriched bread with zinc sulphate showed no significant difference by test panel.     

Bioavailability of zinc in fiber-enriched bread fortified with zinc sulphate

The present study aimed to reduce the caloric value of bread by substituting a part of wheat flour with artichoke bracts at levels of 5%, 10% and 15% without sacrificing taste, texture or acceptability. Moreover, considerable trials had been made to reduce zinc deficiency in wheat bread and fiber-enriched bread and also to study the effect of fiber on zinc bioavailability. Therefore, zinc sulphate was added to bread at levels of 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 mg/100 g edible portion. The results from this study show that: (i) The addition of artichoke bracts to wheat flour increased the water absorption, arrival time, development time, and weakening of the dough as the level of artichoke bracts increased, while dough stability decreased. (ii) Mixing wheat flour with increasing amount of artichoke bracts increased the content of protein, fiber and total essential amino acids, also all essential amino acids increased in wheat bread and fiber-enriched bread after fortification with zinc sulphate at a level of 100 mg/100 g edible portion except methionine, threonine and tyrosine. (iii) The best level of zinc sulphate to give the best bioavailability for zinc is 100 mg/100 g edible portion. (iv) Evaluation of fortified wheat bread and fiber-enriched bread with zinc sulphate showed no significant difference by test panel.     

Selenium concentration and speciation in biofortified flour and bread: Retention of selenium during grain biofortification,processing and production of Se-enriched food

The retention and speciation of selenium in flour and bread was determined following experimental applications of selenium fertilisers to a high-yielding UK wheat crop. Flour and bread were produced using standard commercial practices. Total selenium was measured using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and the profile of selenium species in the flour and bread were determined using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) ICP-MS. The selenium concentration of flour ranged from 30 ng/g in white flour and 35 ng/g in wholemeal flour from untreated plots up to >1800 ng/g in white and >2200 ng/g in wholemeal flour processed from grain treated with selenium (as selenate) at the highest application rate of 100 g/ha. The relationship between the amount of selenium applied to the crop and the amount of selenium in flour and bread was approximately linear, indicating minimal loss of Se during grain processing and bread production. On average, application of selenium at 10 g/ha increased total selenium in white and wholemeal bread by 155 and 185 ng/g, respectively, equivalent to 6.4 and 7.1 μg selenium per average slice of white and wholemeal bread, respectively. Selenomethionine accounted for 65–87% of total extractable selenium species in Se-enriched flour and bread; selenocysteine, Se-methylselenocysteine selenite and selenate were also detected. Controlled agronomic biofortification of wheat crops for flour and bread production could provide an appropriate strategy to increase the intake of bioavailable selenium.     

Effect of addition of protein concentrates from natural and yeast fermented rice bran on the rheological and technological properties of wheat bread

The effect of substituting wheat flour with 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% protein concentrates from natural and yeast fermented rice bran on the rheological properties of their dough and bread properties was studied. Rheological properties of wheat dough were influenced by addition of rice bran protein concentrates. Overall acceptability score and specific loaf volume of 100% wheat bread were not significantly different from composite bread up to 10% rice bran protein substitution, and therefore, the optimised level of substitution was established. The optimised composite bread contained higher total amino acid content, radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing ability power (43.04–48.87 g/100 g, 182.77–201.65   mmol TEAC/100 g and 613.29–637.81 mmol TE/100 g) than control (33.86 g/100 g, 109.43 mmol TEAC/100 g and 540.13 mmol TE/100 g). Springiness, cohesiveness and resilience values of wheat bread were not significantly different from composite bread. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that composite bread had surfaces with embedded granules like protein deposits with small spores.     

Hard Red Spring wheat/C-TRIM 20 bread: Formulation,processing and texture analysis

C-TRIM, a β-glucan-rich fraction, was added to Hard Red Spring wheat (HRSW) flour to increase soluble fiber content of bread, and to obtain a minimum of 0.75 g/bread serving (0.75 g/30 g or 2.5%) required by FDA for health claim. Three treatments or blends FGT0 (100% wheat flour – control), FGT1 (58% flour, 25% gluten and 17% C-TRIM) and FGT2 (60% flour, 22.5% gluten, and 17% C-TRIM) were used in the study. The total amount of soluble fiber from C-TRIM in FGT1 and FGT2 was 4.07–4.17% which was more than the amount required by FDA. The presence of C-TRIM increased both, the Farinograph water absorption and the arrival time. The dough mixing tolerance index (MTI) was also increased by C-TRIM. The FGT1 had higher stability than FGT2, whereas, the loaf volume of FGT1-B was also significantly higher than FGT0-B control and FGT2-B bread. The DSC results indicated that the amount of freezable-water in C-TRIM treated bread (FGT1-B and FGT2-B) was significantly higher than the control wheat flour bread (FGT0-B). This may be attributed to the higher amount of water absorbed by C-TRIM during bread dough (FGT1-D and FGT2-D) preparation and trapped or bound within the bread matrix after baking as compared to the control. After storage of FGT0-B, FGT1-B, and FGT2-B breads 2, 5, and 7 days storage at 25 °C, 4 °C, and −20 °C, the texture of bread were measured with a Texture Analyzer and the data analyzed statistically. The FTG0-B control bread firmness was significantly higher than FGT1-B and FGT2-B C-TRIM treated breads after 7 days storage at 25 °C. The amount of 0.1 M acetic acid-extractable protein was lower in FGT1-B than the control wheat flour (FGT0-B) sample. In addition, more protein was extracted at pH 7.0 than pH 4.5 because of less charges at neutral pH than pH 4.5. The free zone capillary electrophoresis analysis showed obvious differences in the protein charge and size between the dough and bread.     

Effect of defatted maize germ flour addition on the physical and sensory quality of wheat bread

Maize (Zea mays L.) processing produces large quantities of defatted maize germ (DMG) that is being used mainly for animal feed. The objective of this study was to exploit use of this nutrient-rich by-product in bread by replacing wheat flour at 5-20 g/100 g levels. Breads prepared with wheat-DMG flour blends were analyzed for loaf volume, density, instrumental dough hardness and bread firmness, Hunter color (“L”, “a”, “b”, chroma, and hue angle), and selected sensory attributes. Loaf volumes decreased significantly, from 318.8 ml to 216.3 ml, as the DMG flour supplementation was increased from 0 to 20 g/100 g; a similar effect was observed for bread specific volume. Increase in dough hardness (7.56-71.32 N) was directly related to increase in DMG flour levels. Instrumental firmness values were significantly higher for breads containing DMG flours, 61.58 N in 20 g/100 g DMG bread versus 32.84 N for the control bread, made with wheat flour only. The control bread was lighter in color, as shown by higher “L” values, than those having DMG flour, with chroma and hue angle values significantly higher in treatment breads. In general, no differences were observed for the sensory attributes of crumb color, cells uniformity, aroma, firmness, mouthfeel, and off-flavor in breads with up to 15 g/100 g DMG flour, while the overall acceptability scores showed a mixed pattern. The results of this study demonstrated that acceptable quality bread could be made with DMG flour addition at ≤15 g/100 g.     

Enrichment of Egyptian 'Balady' bread. Part 2. Nutritional values and biological evaluation of enrichment with decorticated cracked broadbeans flour (Vicia faba L.)

Decorticated cracked broadbeans flour (DCBF) was used to replace 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of the wheat flour (WF) in the Egyptian 'Balady' bread. The nutrient composition of DCBF, WF, wheat bread, and DCBF-fortified bread was studied. When DCBF fortification was increased from 0 to 20%, there was an increase of 36% in protein, 18% in fat, 123% in calcium, 52% in phosphorus and 40% in iron contents. DCBF contained greater amounts [g/16 g N] of lysine and histidine compared to WF. All essential amino acids increased when DCBF was substituted for WF from 0 to 20%, except methionine, which decreased. The biological quality of the breads was investigated. The protein efficiency ratio for 10%. DCBF bread (1.60) was found to be significantly greater (P < 0.05) than that of 5%-DCBF bread (1.48) and wheat bread (1.17).     

The use of normal and heat-treated barley flour and waxy barley starch as anti-staling agents in laboratory and industrial baking processes

Normal and heat-treated barley, both as flour and waxy starch, were added at a concentration of 3% to a white wheat bread. The effect not only of selected additives, but also of laboratory- and industrial baking processes on stalling was evaluated. Laboratory baked breads with heat-treated barley flour differed from control breads with regard to water content, firmness and amylopectin retrogradation. The influence of water content on firmness increased with storage time. All laboratory baked breads with barley additives, except normal barley flour, were less firm after 7 days of storage as compared to the control although amylopectin retrogradation tended to increase. Improved water absorption, and consequently, increased water content and/or different water binding capacities of the flour/starch could explain these results. Industrial baking caused higher water losses, especially in breads containing additives, thus reducing the effects on amylopectin retrogradation and firmness.     

Effect of Barley Flour on Quality of Balady Bread

Balady bread was prepared from barley flour (Rum and ACSAD 176 flour) with local wheat flour (Unified and Zero flour). Chemical, physical, and sensory analysis of the bread was performed. The results showed that there were variations in physical and chemical properties, between different barley varieties, barley flour, and the bread. This study showed that barley flour can be mixed with wheat flour to provide Balady bread that is acceptable to the consumer by 15 and 30%. Additional portions of barley flour resulted in harder bread, darker color, non uniform-shaped loaf, and unacceptable quality for the consumer. The results also showed a better quality of unified wheat flour compared to Zero wheat flour, which was mixed with barley flours; Rum and ACSAD 176 produced a better overall bread quality that was acceptable to the consumers.     

Effect of germination and probiotic fermentation on nutrient composition of barley based food mixtures

Food mixtures formulated from non-germinated and germinated barley flour, whey powder and tomato pulp (2:1:1w/w) were autoclaved, cooled and fermented with 5% Lactobacillus acidophilus curd (10⁶ cells/ml) at 37 °C for 12 h. The cell count was found significantly higher (8.88 cfu/g) in the fermented food mixture formulated from germinated flour as compared to the non-germinated barley based food mixture. A significant drop in pH with corresponding increase in titratable acidity was found in the germinated barley flour based food mixture. Processing treatments like germination, autoclaving and probiotic fermentation did not bring about any significant change in ash and fat contents, but significant decrease was noticed in crude protein, crude fibre, starch, total and insoluble dietary fibre contents. The combined processing caused significant improvement in reducing sugar, thiamine, niacin, lysine and soluble dietary fibre contents of barley based food mixtures. In conclusion, a combination of germination and fermentation is a potential process for enhancing the nutritional quality of food mixtures based on coarse cereals.     

Improved Nutritional Value in Wheat Bread by Fortification with Full-Fat Winged Bean Flour (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L.DC)

The nutrient composition of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L.DC) full-fat flour (WBFF), wheat flour (WF) and WBFF-fortified breads was studied. When WBFF fortification was increased from 0 to 20%, there was an increase of 63% in protein, 153% in fat, 130% in calcium, 97% in phosphorus, and 105% in iron contents. WBFF contained greater amounts (g/16g N) of histidine and lysine compared to WF. Except methionine which decreased, all other essential amino acids increased when WBFF was substituted for WF from 0 to 15%. The protein efficiency ratio for 10%-WBFF bread (1.62) was found to be significantly greater (P<0.05) than that of 5%-WBFF bread (1.40) and wheat bread (1.11).