Ultrasonic evaluation of fatigue damage in metal matrix composites

This paper describes an experimental nondestructive technique for fatigue damage assessment in metal matrix composites by measuring ultrasonic phase velocity and attenuation. A [0/90] SiC/Ti---15V---3Cr---3Al---3Sn metal matrix composite is considered as a model system. Cyclic loading at 50 and 70% of the ultimate sample strength were used until failure. The ultrasonic phase velocities and attenuations were measured periodically and found to be very sensitive to fatigue damage. The fatigue-induced changes in the composite elastic constants were calculated from the measured ultrasonic velocity data. For samples heat treated prior to fatigue (815°C) above the matrix β transus (about 760°C), the dominant damage mechanism is debonding of the fiber/matrix interface. We found that when samples were fatigued for less than 50% of the lifetime, the reduction of the composite moduli was linearly dependent on the number of fatigue cycles, which is explained by extension of interfacial partial debonds. This was supported by micromechanical analysis based on a partial disbond model. The rate of decrease in the composite moduli in the second half of the fatigue life was found to be lower, which may serve as a basis for estimation of the remaining fatigue life of the composite from ultrasonic velocity and attenuation measurements. The attenuation data was obtained in directions perpendicular to the fiber. A single-fiber scattering model has been used to explain the effect of the fiber/matrix interface on attenuation. Good correlation between attenuation and moduli measurements was observed.     

Fatigue damage accumulation of cold expanded hole in aluminum alloys subjected to block loading

Fatigue damage accumulation of cold expanded hole in aluminum alloys used in land transportation components was investigated. Tests were carried out using pre-cracked SENT specimens and inserting an expanded hole at the crack tip. The degree of the cold expansion was chosen equal to 4.3%. Tests were performed in two and four block loading under constant amplitude. Two sequences were compared.The increasing and the decreasing magnitude were compared. The experimental results were compared to the damage calculated by the Miner's rule and a new simple fatigue damage indicator. This comparison shows that the ‘model of the damage stress’, which take into account of the loading history, yields a good estimation of the experimental results. Moreover, the error is minimized in comparison to the Miner's model.     

Investigation of the response of an aluminium plate subjected to repeated low velocity impact using a continuum damage mechanics approach

Experimental investigation of repeated impacts on aluminium plates is performed using drop weights impacting from either constant or variable heights. In repeated impacts of constant and variable heights, the effect of plasticity is noticeable on the specimens in the very first impact. The effect of strain hardening is observed at higher impact numbers. Stiffness of plates is decreased by initiation and propagation of cracks in the specimens. Finally, perforation and penetration occur at the ultimate consecutive impacts. Numerical simulations of repeated impacts are also conducted using continuum damage mechanics by Abaqus software. Lemaitre's model is used as the damage model, and the code is written in Vumat subroutine. The effect of initial uniaxial and biaxial tensile stress on the plates is considered in repeated impacts, and it is concluded that plates with initial tensile uniaxial stress at transverse edges have maximum values of contact force and absorbed energy.     

Mechanism of buckling development in elastic bars subjected to axial impact

By use of the finite difference method, the non-linear equations governing the elastic dynamic post-buckling deformations are solved for two types of impact buckling problems for straight bars. The initial dynamic buckling mode with a small amplitude parameter, given by the twin-characteristic-parameter solution, is used as the initial condition of the non-linear post-buckling solution. Particular attention is paid to the mechanism of growth and spread of buckling deformation in the bar and the interaction between the axial stress wave and the buckling deformation in the process of impact. It is found that the initial buckling deflection with one half-wave, occurring near the impacted end, spreads forward and develops into the higher mode as the axial stress wave propagates in the bar. The theoretical results are in good agreement with the experimental results reported in the literatures.     

Photoelastic analysis of stress waves in building subjected to vertical impact under laboratory earthquake experiments

In an earthquake occurring directly under a city, the vertical impact induced from the source may cause a large amount of damage to a column and beam of the building. Model-based simulations are carried out with photoelastic material in order to examine the effect of a vertical impact on the building in the case of a near-field type earthquake. The dynamic photoelastic method combined with strain gages is utilized to conduct direct full field and real time observations of stress waves in a building due to vertical impact in laboratory earthquake experiments. The conditions under which vertical impact loading is applied to the model building in a controlled laboratory environment are derived from the data recorded for the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in Japan. The experimental apparatus with which an impact of a longitudinal stress pulse is able to be applied to a model of a real building is shown. It is estimated from our earthquake simulations that large dynamic stress concentrations are produced in the beam–column joints of the building by the vertical impact arising from a seismic source located directly below a surface.     

5A06铝合金单层板超高速撞击弹道极限分析

日益增长的空间碎片对在轨航天器的安全运行构成了严重威胁,毫米级空间碎片的防护已成为航天器结构设计必须考虑的问题之一.航天器的蒙皮是抵御空间碎片超高速撞击的最基本防护结构.采用数值仿真并结合试验验证的方法,对5 mm厚5A06铝合金单层板承受2A12铝合金球形弹丸正撞击下的弹道极限进行了研究.研究表明,在验证实验速度范围内,数值仿真结果与实验结果吻合良好;使用数值仿真对实验速度以上的区间进行拓展研究,获得了其弹道极限曲线和弹道极限方程;数值仿真和实验结果与已有经验方程对比表明,经验方程与具体材料的弹道极限有较大偏差,因此,应具体问题具体分析.     

缝合复合材料层板低速冲击及冲击后压缩实验研究

通过对缝合复合材料层板进行低速冲击和冲击后压缩实验, 研究了不同类型的缝合复合材料层板的冲击损伤特性及冲击后压缩的剩余强度。实验研究表明: 基体损伤和分层是缝合层板与未缝合层板低速冲击的主要损伤模式, 缝合层板具有更好的抗冲击性能, 更高的冲击后压缩强度。缝合密度越大的层板其抗冲击性能越好, 冲击后压缩强度越高。缝合方向为0°的缝合层板较缝合方向为90°的缝合层板具有更好的抗冲击性能和更高的冲击后压缩强度。增加0°方向铺层, 减少45°、-45°方向铺层, 可以提高缝合层板的抗冲击性能和冲击后压缩强度。     

SUS306不锈钢热疲劳损伤的超声无损评价

对经过高温热处理和断裂拉伸实验的SUS306不锈钢模拟试样进行了接触法高频超声测试,对获得的超声反射波信号进行分析．得到了相应的超声波衰减系数与试样平均晶粒尺寸、断裂伸长率之间的关系,对利用超声脉冲反射技术进行材料热疲劳损伤进展的无损评价具有实际意义。     

A 3D numerical and experimental investigation of microstructural alterations around non-metallic inclusions in bearing steel

Non-metallic inclusions such as sulfides and oxides are byproducts of steel manufacturing process. When a component is subjected to repetitive loading, fatigue cracks can emanate from these inclusions due to stress concentrations that happen because of mismatch in elastic–plastic properties of inclusions and matrix. In certain applications such as gears and bearings, crack initiation from inclusions is accompanied with microstructural alteration. This paper employs a numerical as well an experimental approach to investigate these microstructural changes which are so-called “butterfly wings”. A 3D finite element model was developed to obtain the stress distribution in a domain subjected to Hertzian loading with an embedded non-metallic inclusion. A formerly introduced 2D model based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM) was developed to simulate the butterfly wing formation in 3D. Wingspan-to-inclusion ratios were observed at different cross sections following an analytical serial sectioning procedure. A closed form solution was suggested for the wingspan-to-observed-inclusion-diameter ratio and the results were corroborated with the data available in the open literature. On the experimental front, nonmetallic inclusions inside a sample made of bearing steel was detected using ultrasonic inspection method. Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) tests were run on the specimen and post-failure serial sectioning was conducted to understand the 3D shape of butterflies formed around an inclusion detected by ultrasound. Comparison of experimental and numerical serial sectioning of the wings showed a close correlation in the butterfly wings geometry.     

The response of layered aluminum nitride targets subjected to hypervelocity impact

This work presents both experimental and computational ballistic results of layered Aluminum Nitride (AlN) targets. An L/D = 6 tungsten penetrator is used to impact AlN targets at a nominal impact velocity of 2100m/s. The primary objective of this work is to determine the ballistic performance of layered ceramic targets to hypervelocity impact. Various layering configurations are investigated including separating the AlN ceramic layers by thin, low impedance, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). PMMA thicknesses of 1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0 mm are used. The number of AlN ceramic layers is also investigated. Target configurations of two, four, six, and twelve layers are considered. All targets consist of 76.2 mm of AlN. The experiments show that target resistance decreases when PMMA is added. Target resistance is also reduced when more layers are used. A secondary objective of this work is to evaluate the ballistic effect of reducing the lateral dimension of the ceramic tile (reduction in self-confinement). The experiments show reduced target resistance when the lateral tile size is decreased. Computations of selected experiments are presented to provide insight into the behavior of the AlN targets. The computations capture the effect of layering, PMMA separation and lateral tile size and provide insight into the behavior of the ceramic when used in these types of configurations.     

Modeling and damage repair of woven thermoplastic composites subjected to low velocity impact

The low velocity impact behavior of three layer thermoplastic laminates consisting of woven glass fiber and polypropylene has been investigated for two different fiber volume configurations. Panels with configurations of 50/50 and 20/80 in the warp and fill directions were subjected to low velocity impact energies between 4 and 16 J using an instrumented dropping weight impact tower. Load vs. displacement plots showed the excellent energy absorbing capabilities exhibited by the woven composites. Both configurations dissipated approximately 75% of the 16 J incident impact energy. An energy-balance model was used to successfully predict the impact response of the woven thermoplastic composites. The impact damaged plates were tested under four point bend (4 PB) loading conditions. Results showed a reduction in flexural strength and modulus as the impact energy increased. A simple compression molding damage repair process was applied to the 16 J impacted composite plates. 4 PB testing of the repaired samples revealed a significant recovery in the flexural strength and modulus of the thermoplastic woven composite with both fiber configurations.     

围压条件下砂岩循环冲击损伤的力学与超声分析

采用带围压装置的φ100mm霍普金森压杆系统,对砂岩试样进行了单轴冲击和4MPa、20MPa围压条件下的循环冲击试验,并对每次冲击前后的砂岩试样进行超声纵波检测,分析了砂岩在冲击荷载循环作用下的应力、应变特征,定义了砂岩试样的屈服-弹性比用以描述围压下试样应力应变曲线的弹塑性特征,采用纵波波速定义了砂岩试样的冲击损伤并分析了循环冲击试验中砂岩试样纵波波速和应力应变之间的关系。分析发现：在围压作用下,应力－应变曲线呈现典型的弹塑性特征。随着冲击荷载循环作用次数的增加,砂岩试样屈服应力、峰值应力降低,屈服应变、峰值应变增加。随着循环冲击作用次数的增加,砂岩试样的应力、应变特征与纵波波速之间存在良好的相关关系。较低围压状态下累计损伤度明显高于较高围压下砂岩的累积损伤,砂岩循环冲击损伤具有明显的围压效应。研究结果对地下工程的建设和防护有一定的指导意义。     

冲击荷载下花岗岩残积土的滞回曲线特征与损伤定量评价

为评价冲击荷载下花岗岩残积土的损伤发展规律,基于不同振幅(A = 100 ～400 kPa)、频率(f=3 ～15 Hz)和围压(σ'3 =50 ～500 kPa)下室内循环冲击试验得到滞回曲线的形态特征,提出4个反映试样在冲击荷载下的能量消耗、损伤程度、刚度衰减和塑性应变发展特性的定量结构损伤参数:累积耗散能量EN、...     

Interaction of laminate damage and adhesive disbonding in composite scarf joints subjected to combined in-plane loading and impact

Impact tests were carried out on composite laminates and composite scarf repairs, while both were subjected to in-plane loading with tensile pre-strain levels up to 5000 microstrain. The results show that pre-straining of the composite laminates has no noticeable influence on the size of the delamination area for the given impact energy of 8 J, which represents a typical barely-visible impact on thin-skin composite structures. For composite scarf joints, however, resulting damage has been found to be a combination of adhesive disbonding and matrix cracking (delamination and intraply cracking) in the composite laminate. The size of this mixed type of damage increases significantly with increasing pre-strain levels. A finite element model was developed to investigate the interaction between adhesive disbonding and composite delamination. The computational results reveal that both delamination and adhesive disbonding are dominated by the mode II fracture. Since the critical mode II fracture energy release rate for composite laminates (G_IIC = 1.08 kJ/m²) is much less than that pertinent to the adhesive (G_IIC = 3.73 kJ/m²), delamination tends to occur first in the composite laminates, which then shield the growth of disbonding in the adhesive.     

Effect of initial damage level and patch configuration on the fatigue behaviour of reinforced steel plates

The application of carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites externally bonded on cracked steel plates is an effective system in extending the fatigue life of these structural elements. In particular, composite patches bonded on the crack tip region reduce the stress concentration and the crack opening displacement, leading to an extension of the fatigue life. In order to additionally show the effectiveness of this kind of reinforcing technique, experimental tests were performed at the laboratories of the Politecnico di Milano. Fatigue tests were executed on single edge notched tension specimens reinforced by pultruded strips bonded to a single side (non‐symmetric reinforcement). Different patch configurations (reinforcement stiffness and patch location) and initial damage levels were considered as parameters influencing the repair effectiveness in extending the fatigue life. The results showed that the use of carbon fibre reinforced polymer materials bonded around the tip region allows extending the fatigue life for different amount of initial damage level. Finally, this work provides some useful information for the more efficient repair configuration.     

一种改进的内聚力损伤模型在复合材料层合板低速冲击损伤模拟中的应用

针对传统内聚力损伤模型(CZM)无法考虑层内裂纹对界面分层影响的缺点,提出了一种改进的适用于复合材料层合板低速冲击损伤模拟的CZM。通过对界面单元内聚力本构模型中的损伤起始准则进行修正,考虑了界面层相邻铺层内基体、纤维的损伤状态及应力分布对层间强度和分层扩展的影响。基于ABAQUS用户子程序VUMAT,结合本文模型及层合板失效判据,建立了模拟复合材料层合板在低速冲击作用下的渐进损伤过程的有限元模型,计算了不同铺层角度和材料属性的层合板在低速冲击作用下的损伤状态。通过数值模拟与试验结果的对比,验证了本文方法的精度及合理性。     

Characterization of fracture modes in stitched and unstitched cross-ply laminates subjected to low-velocity impact and compression after impact loading

The insertion of transverse reinforcing threads by stitching is a very promising technique to restrict impact damage growth and to improve post-impact residual strength of laminates. In order to develop general models capable of addressing the issues of impact resistance and damage tolerance of stitched laminates, detailed understanding of the nature and extent of damage, identification of the dominant fracture modes and assessment of the effect of stitches on the damage development are essential. In this study, both instrumented drop-weight tests and compression-after-impact tests were carried out to examine and compare the damage responses of stitched and unstitched graphite/epoxy laminates subjected to low-velocity impact. The progression of damage and its effect on post-impact performance was investigated in detail in two classes of cross ply laminates ([0₃/90₃]_s and [0/90]_3s) by means of an extensive series of damage observations, conducted with various complementary techniques (X-radiography, ultrasonics, optical microscopy, deply). The results of the analyses carried out during the study to characterize the key fracture modes and to clarify their relationship with the structural performance of both stitched and unstitched laminates are reported and discussed in the paper.     

Numerical stress and crack initiation analysis of the compressor blades after foreign object damage subjected to high-cycle fatigue

This paper presents results of the complex stress and crack initiation analysis of the PZL-10 W turbo-engine compressor blade subjected to high cycle fatigue (HCF). A nonlinear finite element method was utilized to determine the stress state of the blade during the first mode of transverse vibration. In this analysis, the numerical models without defects and also with V-notches were defined. The quality of the numerical solution was checked by the convergence analysis. Obtained results were next used as an input data into crack initiation (ε–N) analyzes performed for the load time history equivalent to one cycle of the transverse vibration. In the fatigue analysis the different methods such as: Neuber elastic–plastic strain correction, linear damage summation and Palmgreen–Miner rule were utilized. As a result of ε–N analysis, the number of load cycles to the first fatigue crack appearing in the compressor blades was obtained. Moreover, the influence of the blade vibration amplitude on the number of cycles to the crack initiation was analyzed. Values of the fatigue properties of the blade material according to Baumel–Seeger and Muralidharan methods were calculated. The influence of both the notch radius and values of the UTS of the blade material on the fatigue behavior of the structure was also considered. In the last part of work, the finite element results were compared with the results of an experimental vibration HCF tests performed for the compressor blades.     

Comparison of tensile and impact behavior of carbon steel in H2S environments

The present research reports the effect of hydrogen sulfide pressure on the tensile and impact behavior of carbon steel. Hydrogen content measurement was conducted due to the relationship between hydrogen and mechanical behavior. A remarkable increase in the relative tensile strength and plasticity loss was observed as hydrogen sulfide pressure increased. However, the Charpy absorbed energy showed no obvious change with increase of H₂S pressure from 0.1 MPa to 1.6 MPa, even though a significant decrease compared to that of as-received steel. Combined with the results of hydrogen content measurement, it was found that hydrogen has a profound effect on the tensile and impact behavior of steel. Fractography of the corroded tensile and impact specimens exhibited mixed ductile–brittle rupture. In addition, the brittle zone on the fracture surface increased for corroded tensile specimens and showed nearly similar area fraction for corroded impact specimens as H₂S pressure increased. A probable mechanism is proposed to interpret the difference in the tensile and impact results.     

A study of deformation and damage accumulation processes in 10GN2MFa steel under low-cycle loading

The paper presents results of the experimental investigation of deformation behavior and damage accumulation kinetics in a heat-resistant reactor pressure vessel steel at high stress levels under stress-controlled (pulsating), low-cycle loading up to 10⁴ cycles. Hardness measurements have been performed upon various operating time periods under elastoplastic deformation. It has been found that hardness and strength of the steel exhibit qualitatively different behaviors throughout the lifetime. The damage accumulation process in steels under static and cyclic loadings has been studied by means of the LM-hardness method. The curves of Weibull homogeneity coefficient vs. cycling stress and accumulated strains are obtained. __________ Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 2, pp. 5–10, March–April, 2008.