Biological control of postharvest green mold decay of oranges by Rhodotorula glutinis

The biocontrol activity of Rhodotorula glutinis on green mold decay of oranges caused by Penicillium digitatum was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Significant control was achieved with a washed cell suspension and an unwashed cell culture mixture of R. glutinis. Treatment of wounds with autoclaved cell cultures or cell-free culture filtrate did not prevent decay. The protection provided by the washed yeast cells was dose-dependent. The higher the concentration of R. glutinis, the better the effect of the biocontrol capacity. At concentrations of yeast of 1×10⁹ colony-forming units per milliliter or higher and pathogen spore suspensions of 5×10⁴ spores per milliliter, green mold was almost inhibited after 4-days incubation at 20 °C. The interval between the pathogen inoculation and the antagonist application significantly influenced the biocontrol ability. The biocontrol efficacy of R. glutinis applied before the pathogen was better than that of applied after the pathogen. Surprisingly, R. glutinis was also effective in controlling green mold at low temperature (4 °C). Rapid colonization of the yeast in wounds was observed during the first 3 days at 20 °C, and remained stable after 5-days incubation. On fruits stored at 4 °C, even after 21 days, the population of R. glutinis in wounded fruits was more than 1,600-fold of what it was just prior to storage. In the test on potato dextrose agar plates, agar disks of R. glutinis nutrient yeast dextrose agar cultures placed on PDA plates seeded with pathogens did not inhibit the growth of P. digitatum. Spore germination of pathogens in potato dextrose broth was greatly controlled in the presence of living cell suspensions.     

Zinc‐containing compounds for personal care applications

It is well‐known that zinc ions are widely used in cosmetic products. Their popularity is associated with the multifunctional profile of Zn²⁺, which is classified as an essential chemical element in the human body. This review examines numerous beneficial biological properties of zinc‐containing compounds and classifies the compounds used in cosmetic products according to their functionality profile: antioxidant, sunscreen, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐pigmentation, anti‐ageing, anti‐acne, antimicrobial, anti‐odour, cleansing or stabilizing activity. It also underlines the significance of zinc in enzymatic processes, which depends on the enzyme type acts as inhibitor or enzymatic stimulator. Moreover, the article describes the chemical nature of the most interesting groups of Zn compounds.     

Acidified sodium chlorite as an alternative to chlorine to control microbial growth on shredded carrots while maintaining quality

Shredded carrots are particularly susceptible to microbial growth and quality deterioration as a result of a large cut surface area to mass ratio. Acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) in the concentration range 500–1200 µL L^?1 has been shown to have stronger efficacy against pathogens and spoilage bacteria than chlorine and does not form carcinogenic products. However, ASC in this concentration range aggravates tissue damage. The objective of this study was to optimize ASC treatment parameters to balance antimicrobial activity with quality retention of shredded carrots. Shredded carrots were immersed for either 1 min in 100, 250 or 500 µL L^?1 ASC solutions or 2 min in 200 µL L^?1 chlorine or water (control). Treated samples were spin‐dried and packaged in polypropylene bags and stored at 5 °C for up to 21 days. Carrots were evaluated at 7‐day intervals for visual appearance, package atmosphere composition (O₂ and CO₂), product firmness, tissue electrolyte leakage and pH. The microbial growth, including total aerobic bacterial counts, total coliforms/Escherichia coli, yeast and mold counts and lactic acid bacterial counts on the products was also determined. Treatments with all concentrations of ASC reduced the aerobic bacterial counts, coliform/E. coli counts, yeast mold and counts and lactic acid bacterial populations by 1.2–2.0 log cfu g^?1 when compared with the water‐washed and unwashed samples. During storage, unwashed samples had a sharp increase in lactic acid bacterial populations accompanied by a sharp decline in pH readings and rapid loss in firmness and tissue integrity; samples washed with 100 µL L^?1 ASC maintained the best overall visual quality, accompanied by the retention of tissue integrity and firmness. Therefore, 100 µL L^?1 was determined as the optimum concentration of ASC for maintaining overall quality and firmness, inhibiting microbial growth and prolonging the shelf‐life of shredded carrots. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Construction of the mutant strain in Aspergillus oryzae 3.042 for abundant proteinase production by the N+ ion implantation mutagenesis

Because of secreting large amounts of enzymes, Aspergillus oryzae was widely used in the fermentation of soy sauce in many Asian countries. Here, N⁺ ion implantation mutagenesis was applied to improve the ability of A. oryzae to secrete acid protease. Several mutants were screened using three kinds of plates (Casein medium, Czapek’s medium and carboxymethyl cellulose medium agar plates). Compared with the other mutants, the mutant A100‐8 could secrete the most protease. Acid protease activity of A100‐8 was enhanced about 44.1% at 36 h by koji fermentation test. In addition, A100‐8 was stable by periodically subculturing and maintaining on the agar slant. The mRNA expression levels of two kinds of acid protease (serine carboxypeptidase and aspartyl protease) were measured by RT‐PCR at different periods. Serine carboxypeptidase and some kinds of aspartyl protease of A100‐8 were significantly (P < 0.01) expressed higher than the control at all times.     

Clinical evaluation of a dioic acid‐based formulation on facial skin in an Indian population

The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of 1,18‐octadecen‐9‐dioic acid (dioic acid) and a Rumex occidentalis extract complex for their skin‐lightening action in an Indian population. Prior to the clinical study, the efficacy of dioic as an inhibitor of melanogenesis was confirmed on dark‐pigmented human melanocytes. As part of a 12‐week vehicle‐controlled clinical study, the skin‐lightening effect of a test product containing 1% dioic acid, 2% of a Rumex occidentalis extract and sunscreens (SPF 15) was assessed on the facial skin of 71 Indian female volunteers. Change in skin colour was monitored by (A) Chroma Meter^® measurement (L*, a*, b*) and Individual Typology Angle (ITA?) calculation and (B) Visual grading of standardized photographs by a dermatologist. Colorimetric measurements on volunteers' cheeks showed a significant increase of L* and ITA? compared to baseline after 4, 8 and 12 weeks of test product application. For both L* and ITA? measurements, changes were significantly different than the SPF 15‐containing vehicle at weeks 4 and 12. These results were confirmed by the dermatological visual grading. The overall skin‐lightening action of the test product was beyond the one observed with the SPF 15 vehicle. These findings show that a dioic acid and Rumex occidentalis complex deliver a significant skin‐lightening effect on facial skin in an Indian population.     

Effect of washing with citric acid and antioxidants on the colour and microbiological quality of whole mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus L.)

The effect of washing with citric acid followed by anti‐browning treatment involving rinsing with sodium d ‐isoascorbate or sodium l ‐ascorbate on the colour, microbiological quality and bacterial blotch of whole mushrooms when stored at 5 °C for up to 13 days at 80% RH was evaluated. Washing with 1% citric acid reduced Pseudomonas counts avoiding bacterial blotch, but caused an important deterioration of colour. When washing with citric acid was followed by an anti‐browning treatment, mushrooms colour was improved, at the same time as bacterial blotch was reduced, although the decrease of Pseudomonas counts was smaller than in mushrooms washed only with citric acid. The most effective treatment was washing with 1% citric acid followed by anti‐browning treatment with 1.5% sodium l ‐ascorbate.     

Protective and restorative effects of a Commiphora mukul gum resin and triheptanoin preparation on the CCL-110 skin fibroblast cell line

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a major ingredient in skin care products because of its anti‐wrinkle effects, although it has some side effects especially at higher amounts. In this study, we compare the anti‐wrinkle related properties of CoQ10 and a proprietary Commiphora mukul gum resin (guggul) and triheptanoin preparation (GU‐TC7). GU‐TC7 is prepared with a supercritical CO₂‐co‐solvent extraction with ethanol, standardized to 2% guggulsterones and triheptanoin, a triglyceride composed of three 7‐carbon fatty acids. Treatment of CCL‐110 skin fibroblasts with GU‐TC7 demonstrates a mild proliferative effect compared to CoQ10 and increased type I collagen synthesis. Additionally, GU‐TC7 inhibited matrix metalloproteinase‐1 (MMP‐1) expression in a dose‐dependent manner at 20–100 μg mL^?1 and inhibited human elastase expression by more than 50% as compared to no elastase inhibition with CoQ10 treatment. These results suggest that GU‐TC7 possesses properties that are applicable to the treatment of wrinkles and may be considered for its further evaluation in skin care products.     

J. Cosmet. Sci., 59, 419–430 (September/October 2008)Anti-inflammatory activity of Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum extract and its application as a cosmeceutical ingredient

Synopsis Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum has long been used as a rheumatic remedy, as an anti‐pyretic and as an anti‐ulcer treatment, and for the alleviation of local pain and fever in Korea and Malaysia. In order to investigate the possibility of Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum extract as a cosmetic ingredient, we measured its anti‐inflammatory effect by its inhibition of iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) and the release of PGE2, IL‐6, and IL‐8. We also measured its anti‐allergic effect by its inhibition of beta‐hexosamidase release. An HPLC experiment after extraction with 95% EtOH at pH 3.5 showed that Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum was mainly composed of lycorine (up to 1%), a well‐known immunosuppressor. The content of lycorine varied, depending on the type of plant tissue analysed and the extraction method. In an anti‐inflammatory assay for inhibition of nitric oxide formation on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐activated mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells, the ethanol extract of Crinum asiaticum showed an inhibitory activity of NO production in a dose‐dependent manner (IC50 = 58.5 μg ml^‐1). Additional study by RT‐PCR demonstrated that the extract of Crinum asiaticum significantly suppressed the expression of the iNOS gene. Moreover, the extract of Crinum asiaticum did not show any cytotoxicity, but did show a cell proliferation effect against LPS (a 10–60% increase in cell viability). In an assay to determine inhibition of the H2O2‐activated release of PGE2, IL‐6, and IL‐8 in human normal fibroblast cell lines, the release of PGE2 and IL‐6 was almost completely inhibited above concentrations of 0.05% and 1%, respectively. Moreover, the release of IL‐8 was completely inhibited over the entire range of concentration (> 0.0025%). In order to investigate the skin‐sensitizing potentials of the extract of Crinum asiaticum, a human clinical test was performed after repeated epicutaneous 48‐h applicaticons under an occlusive patch (RIPT). The repeated and single cutaneous applications of Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum extract under the occlusive patch did not provoke any cumulative irritation and sensitization reactions. The result showed that the extract of Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum has a sufficient anti‐inflammatory effect. Therefore, Crinum asiaticum Linne var. japonicum extract may be useful for development as an ingredient in cosmetic products.     

Advantages of immunoglobulin Y for the detection of Staphylococcal enterotoxin A in a double‐antibody sandwich enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay

To determine the amounts of staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), a novel and sensitive enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed. Protein A, which is produced by Staphylococcus aureus, interferes with the reaction between SEA and anti‐SEA immunoglobulin G (IgG), resulting in a false‐positive reaction. Chicken IgY was introduced as a capture antibody in the sandwich ELISA system, as IgY binds less efficiently to protein A. When the anti‐SEA IgG antibody was used as the capture and detection antibodies (IgG‐IgG ELISA), the background levels of protein A increased, thus resulting in a false‐positive reaction. A 0.01 ng mL^?1 concentration of protein A significantly increased the absorbance value of the blank wells. When the anti‐SEA IgY antibody was used as the capture antibody, 1000 ng mL^?1 of protein A did not affect the absorbance value. The ELISA system using anti‐SEA IgY as a capture antibody and anti‐SEA IgG as a detection antibody (IgY‐IgG ELISA) showed a detection limit of <0.25 ng mL^?1 and a creditability of R² = 0.98. These findings demonstrate the advantage of chicken IgY for the detection of SEA by means of double‐antibody sandwich ELISA.     

Ames Test to Detect Mutagenicity of 2‐Alkylcyclobutanones: A Review

Food irradiation is an effective and safe method for preservation and long‐term storage, and it is approved for use in over 60 countries for various applications in a wide variety of food products. This process is performed by use of accelerated electron beams, X‐rays, or gamma radiation (⁶⁰Co or ¹³⁷Cs). 2‐Alkylcyclobutanones (2‐ACBs) are the only known radiolytic products generated from foods that have fatty acids (triglycerides) and are subjected to irradiation. Since the 1990s toxicological safety studies of 2‐ACBs have been conducted extensively through synthetic compounds, then and tests to determine if the compounds have any mutagenic activity are strictly necessary. The Ames test was chosen by many researchers to assess the mutagenicity of 2‐ACBs. The test uses distinct bacterial cell lines Salmonella typhimurium to detect point mutations at sites guanine–cytosine (G–C) and Escherichia coli to detect point mutations at sites adenine–thymine (A–T). This bibliographic research aims to bring together all the results obtained and a comparison and cell lines used, type of plates, and solvents. This research showed that no mutagenic activity was observed in any of the cell lines and concentrations evaluated by the works of authors, so the 2‐ACBs compounds showed no mutagenic substance in concentrations detectable by the Ames test.     

Leg wash protocol to assess the skin moisturization potential of personal cleansing products

Many personal cleansers claim to provide a skin moisturization benefit, but there has been relatively little discussion in the scientific literature of the clinical methods that provide the basis for such claims. We have developed a leg wash method to assess the dry skin improvement potential of personal cleansing products. The protocol is performed on 'natural' dry leg skin to avoid potential confounds that may result from applying cleansers to soap-damaged skin. Washes are conducted over a period of days or weeks, with visual and instrumental assessments performed at various times throughout the period to characterize products' short-term and cumulative skin effects. Studies conducted with a variety of personal cleansing technologies demonstrate the method's ability to discriminate products on the basis of their dry skin improvement potential. Further, results from a series of eleven leg wash studies conducted with the same treatment pair under different test conditions (time of year, test facility, expert grader) demonstrate the protocol's robustness. The data generated under this protocol show that personal cleansing products differ widely in their ability to improve dry skin. Our results indicate that there is a wide range of efficacy among moisturizing personal cleansing products, with some products delivering a significant dry skin improvement benefit even for periods as long as 24 hours.     

Wooden boards affecting the survival of bacteria?

pIE639 and Enterococcus faecium as hygienically relevant test bacteria. The development of the bacterial titer was evaluated by culturing on agar contact plates and investigating wood shavings. Survival of the test bacteria depended on different factors such as tree species, the initial inoculum size and the characteristics of the inoculated strain. The bacterial titer decreased fastest on pine compared to other woods (spruce, beech, poplar) and plastic. After bacterial infestation only pine wood was germ-free at the surface and in the inner structure after a few hours. The survival of the bacteria on poplar and beech was comparable to their survival on plastic. The study indicated that an antibacterial effect of wood, especially for pine, is caused by the hygroscopic properties of wood and the wood extractives. The antibacterial effect of pine wood was not influenced by the storage time of the wood following harvest or the functional condition of the wood up to a germ load of 10⁸ CFU/cm² E. coli pIE639.     

Lifting properties of the alkamide fraction from the fruit husks of Zanthoxylum bungeanum

The fruits of various Zanthoxylum species are used as a spice in the Chinese and Japanese cuisine because of their delicate flavour and tingling properties. The lipophilic hydroxyalkamides hydroxy α‐ and β‐sanshools ( 1a,b ) have been identified as the tingling principles of these plants, and previous studies have validated a sanshool‐rich lipophilic extract from the fruit husks of Z. bungeanum Maxim. (Zanthalene^®) as an anti‐itching cosmetic ingredient. Because tingling is a sort of ‘paralytic pungency’, and Zanthalene^® potently inhibits synaptic transmission, we have investigated its capacity to relax subcutaneous muscles and act as a topical lifting agent for wrinkles. An anti‐wrinkles extract rich in spilanthol ( 2 ), a lipophilic alkamide having sensory properties similar to those of Zanthalene^®, was used as a reference. Short‐term (lifting effect) and long‐term (anti‐wrinkle) improvements of skin roughness parameters were evaluated by both objectives’ and subjectives’ measurements. An immediate ‘lifting’ effect was observed with the sanshool‐rich lipophilic extract, at dosages at which the reference alkamide extract was inactive in the objective assays. Limited desensitization after repeated application and good overall tolerability were observed, although a modest long‐term anti‐wrinkle effect was shown by both products. Taken together, these observations validate the use of sanshool‐rich lipophilic extracts as an efficacious, immediate‐action lifting agent, and exemplify the relevance of sensory observations to foster the development of innovative cosmetic ingredients.     

Anti‐adhesive effects of sialic acid and Lactobacillus plantarum on Staphylococcus aureus in vitro

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common food‐borne pathogen that causes severe diseases after adhesion to epithelial cells. Lactobacillus inhibits pathogenic bacterial adhesion and infection. In addition, sialic acid (SA) is widely known for its beneficial biological functions. A new way of reducing the occurrence of diseases and curbing the overuse of antibiotics is ingesting prebiotics and probiotics that regulate the intestinal flora. In this study, we first evaluated the anti‐adhesive effects of several strains of Lactobacillus on S. aureus. The study revealed that the S. aureus adhesion was inhibited by all the strains of Lactobacillus. Besides, the rate of inhibition by L. plantarum Z‐4 was significantly higher than other Lactobacillus species. We then investigated the effects of different SA concentrations (40, 100, 150, 200, and 260 μg/ml) on the growth and adhesion characteristics of L. plantarum and S. aureus. The results showed that SA influences bacterial adhesion by regulating the bacteria's growth characteristics. Finally, the effects of SA combined with Lactobacillus on the adhesion of S. aureus were assessed by competition, exclusion and displacement methods. SA with a concentration of 260 μg/mL combined with L. plantarum had the highest inhibition effect on the competition assays. In addition, the expression of S. aureus adhesion‐related genes was reduced. This provides a new perspective on the application of SA and/or L. plantarum and its potential to resist adhesion of S. aureus.     

Characterization of cosmetic cream with Mesembryanthemum crystallinum plant extract: influence of formulation composition on physical stability and anti‐oxidant activity

Cosmetic or pharmaceutical composition containing superoxide dismutase (SOD) was usually used in topical administration, particularly, in fighting against skin ageing and in the protection of the skin against radiation exposure. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum is a halophyte plant widely used in the traditional medicine, characterized by the presence of anti‐oxidants enzymes in responses to abiotic stresses. In the present study, we prepared a formulation with M. crystallinum extract characterized by naturally occurring SOD and catalase in association with other anti‐oxidants molecules. The SOD activity was measured by 3‐(4,5‐dimethyldiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyl‐tetrazolium bromide/riboflavin method, catalase by colorimetric method and the total anti‐radical activity was measured by 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) method. Formulations contain a significant SOD activity (8.33 U mg^?1), a catalase activity (0.5 × 10⁷ UC) and an anti‐radical activity (30% of DPPH inhibition). The formulation storage (15 days at 4°C) showed a marked loss of total anti‐oxidant capacity. The addition of the M. crystallinum extract induced also a reduction in formulation viscosity and pH.     

Qualification of a precise and easy-to-handle sweat casting imprint method for the prediction and quantification of anti-perspirant efficacy

A time‐ and cost‐effective sweat casting method using the forearm as test site to assess the efficacy of several anti‐perspirant formulations with a low number of test subjects has been evaluated and qualified. The imprint sweat casting method is based on a 2‐component silcone‐imprint technique to measure the efficacy of more than eight products in parallel with the same test subject. In studies using aluminum chlorohydrate (ACH) formulations as test anti‐perspirants, a clear‐cut correlation could be demonstrated between sweat gland activities measured by the imprint method and gravimetric measurement of sweat gland activities. Concentration‐dependent inhibition of sweat gland activity could be observed with the imprint technique up to an ACH concentration of 15%, and all formulations containing 2% ACH or above resulted in statistically significant reduction of sweat gland activity (P < 0.001) when compared with untreated control areas. Furthermore, the SDs of individual studies using the imprint technique were in a range of ±20% of sweat gland activity, which can be regarded rather low for in vivo measurements of a complex process like sweat secretion. A group‐wise comparison between the measurements of anti‐perspirant activity as determined by the imprint protocol and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Guideline compliant gravimetric hot‐room protocol revealed that the test results for anti‐perspirant activity obtained with the imprint protocol are similar to those obtained with the hot‐room protocol. Moreover, the data generated with the imprint protocol have a high predictive value for the outcome of a later guideline‐compliant hot‐room test. As the imprint casting method tends to be a little more sensitive for formulations with low anti‐perspirant activity, and seems to be associated with less interassay variability than the standard gravimetric hot‐room test, the imprint casting method may select products which later fail to pass the standard gravimetric hot‐room test. Meanwhile the imprint sweat casting has proven to be a robust method useful to support efficacy‐oriented product development. Therefore, in later stages of utilization it might even evolve into an efficient claim substantiation tool.     

Fatty acid sulphoalkyl amides and esters as cosmetic surfactants

A review is given of the manufacture, properties and applications of the anionic surfactants commonly known as taurates and isethionates (fatty acid sulphoalkyl amides and esters, respectively). Originally developed in the 1930s for textile processing, these surfactants are used increasingly in the cosmetic field, particularly those derived from coconut fatty acid. Both types are produced from sodium isethionate, HO°C₂H₄SO₃Na. The acyl isethionate, R°COO°C₂H₄SO₃Na, is obtained by reaction with a fatty acid (‘direct process’). or fatty acid chloride (‘indirect process’). The direct process is cheaper but requires extreme conditions which can lead to discoloration of the product and a loss of shorter chain fatty acid components. The N-methyl-N-acyltaurate, R°CON(R¹)C₂H₄SO₃Na, is obtained by Schotten-Baumann reaction of a fatty acid chloride with N-methyltaurine, which is derived from sodium isethionate via methylamine. Taurates and isethionates retain the benefits of the soaps to which they are structurally similar, but chemical modifications have eliminated many undesirable features. Thus they combine good detergency and wetting with high foaming, and maintain their performance in hard or salt water. Taurates are stable to hydrolysis over the whole pH range. Isethionates are prone to hydrolysis at high (>8) or low (<5) pH, but this does not normally present a problem in cosmetic formulations. Above all, these surfactants are characterized by their extreme mildness to skin. Syndet and syndet/soap bars based on isethionate can be formulated at neutral pH (‘Dove type’bars) instead of the alkaline pH of soap, and have been shown in various studies to be milder than soap and better tolerated by the young, the old and those with sensitive skins. Similarly, isethionates have been shown to be less irritating than other anionic or amphoteric surfactants used in cosmetics. The difference has been related to the negligible effect of isethionate on the water-binding capacity of stratum corneum. Other cosmetic applications besides toilet bars include shampoos (excellent cleaning, mild to scalp, some hair conditioning effects), liquid soaps (mild for all-over body use), bubble baths (copious stable foam, efficient lime soap dispersal, low irritancy), skin creams and lotions (emulsification, alleviation of ‘dry skin’), baby care products (ultra-mild cleansing bars and milks, impregnated baby wipes) and oral products (foaming agents with low toxicity for toothpastes and mouthwashes).     

First report of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus in tank cultured dusky kob (Argyrosomus japonicus), and evaluation of three phenotypic methods in the detection of MRSA

This study was conducted to ascertain the occurrence of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in marine finfish (Argyrosomus japonicus) harvested from the wild and two re‐circulatory aquaculture systems, and evaluating the reliability of three phenotypic methods in the detection of methicillin resistance. A total of 120 dusky kob fish were sampled for S. aureus detection using conventional methods and confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the nuc gene. Methicillin resistance was determined by molecular detection of the mecA gene. Using mecA as the defining standard, the specificities and sensitivities of cefoxitin disc diffusion, oxacillin screen agar, and growth of S. aureus on Brilliance MRSA II Agar were evaluated. A total of 321 presumptive S. aureus isolates were recovered by culture, out of which 202 (62.9%) were confirmed by PCR. Of these, 33 (16.3%) strains were mecA positive while 169 (83.7%) were mecA negative. The sensitivities and specificities of MRSA detection was 93.9 and 91.7%, 81.8 and 92.3%, and 87.9 and 94.1% for cefoxitin disc, oxacillin screen agar test, and Brilliance MRSA II agar, respectively. This is so far the first report of MRSA in dusky kob aquaculture in South Africa. In the absence of molecular techniques, cefoxitin disc diffusion test is recommended along with any other phenotypic method to improve MRSA detection from samples of veterinary origin.

Practical implications

Methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus currently presents one of the greatest challenges for medical research worldwide, as well as is one of the most important causes of bacteria gastroenteritis due to preformed toxins in foods. There is a dearth of knowledge on marine foods as carriers/sources of MRSA infection. There are also major discrepancies obtained with MRSA detection methods, making effective detection of this pathogen complicated. The results from this study show that healthy aquaculture fish are reservoirs of MRSA, thus it is necessary to regularly monitor marine foods. Cefoxitin disc diffusion test is recommended as the preferred method for detection of MRSA from fish/food samples where molecular methods are lacking.     

Compositional analysis and antimicrobial activity of various honey types of Pakistan

Antibacterial activities of various honey samples were assessed by using clinical isolates like S. aureus (Gram‐positive), E. coli, P. aeruginosa and K. pneumonia (Gram‐negative). It was observed that acacia and citrus honey has inhibited growth of all bacterial strains as compared to standard antibiotics (Gentamicine). Inhibition zones for S. aureus (27.4 ± 0.5 mm), E. coli (26.5 ± 0.7 mm), K. pneumonia (24.4 ± 0.5 mm) and P. aeruginosa (22.4 ± 0.2 were observed. Minimum inhibitory concentration of S. aureu (0.068 mg mL^?1), E. coli (0.072 mg mL^?1), P. aeruginosa (0.084 mg mL^?1) and K. pneumonia (0.085 mg mL^?1) was obtained for various types of honey samples. Pronounced antibacterial activities as well as standard values of various quality parameters of honey samples are scientifically proven for its use in traditional medicine since ancient time throughout the world.     

The revised COLIPA in vitro UVA method

A multicentred study derived from the COLIPA in vitro UVA method was performed to assess the influence of test conditions on UVA protection factor (UVAPF) values in terms of amplitude, reproducibility between laboratories and correlation with in vivo UVA results. Eight products with a range of in vivo UVAPF from three to 29 were used. Two different types of plates, namely high‐roughness (5 μm) and low‐roughness (2 μm) plates, were used with a different application rate for each (1.3 mg cm^?2 and 0.75 mg cm^?2 respectively). The UVR dose applied to both plate types followed the same principle as the original test (1.2 J. cm^?2 × UVAPF0). Strong, significant correlations between in vitro and in vivo UVAPF values were observed for both plate types (Pearson correlation > 0.9, P ≤ 0.01). The correlation and slope obtained with the low‐roughness plates confirmed the previous results obtained by COLIPA. Across all laboratories, higher UVAPF values were obtained on the high‐roughness plates (P < 0.01). Reproducibility of UVAPF values between laboratories was comparable between the two plate roughness values (low roughness, COV = 8%; high roughness, COV = 12%). Considering the in vitro/in vivo comparisons, a regression slope of 0.83 was observed for the low‐roughness plates, in comparison with a value of 1.05 for the high‐roughness plates. The accuracy of the method was improved, therefore, with the use of the high‐roughness plates. With a constraint to recommend the use of only one plate type in the COLIPA UVA in vitro Test, the high‐roughness plate was selected on an on‐going basis to limit variability of results and to provide better accuracy with in vivo data.