Fire tests on window assemblies protected by automatic sprinklers

Full-scale fire tests on wired and tempered glazing in steel and aluminum frames are described. These assemblies achieved fire resistance ratings when exposed to a standard fire of 45 min to 2 h. The maximum radiant heat flux transmitted through the glass was reduced by more than 90%. Reference: J. K. Richardson and I. Oleskiewicz, Fire Tests on Window Assemblies Protected by Automatic Sprinklers,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 1987, pp. 115–132.This paper is a contribution from the Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada.     

Fire stops for plastic pipe

Undue fire hazards may arise when plastic pipe penetrates fire-rated walls or floors. Fire stops for protecting these penetration openings are available commercially. This paper discusses the physical characteristics and operating modes of these devices. A selected number of fire stops were tested in accordance with CAN 4-S115-M85 in either horizontal (wall) or vertical (floor) configurations, using two small-scale furnaces. Reference: K. K. Choi, Fire Stops for Plastic Pipe,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 4, November 1987, pp. 267–279.     

Some tools for fire model validation

General ideas are offered for describing fire model validity prior to starting product design. Validation of independent test results is part of this phase. Differences between comparable results, graphical methods, and distinctions between random and systematic errors are discussed. Reference: Alan D. Davies, Some Tools for Fire Model Validation,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 1987, pp. 95–114.     

Smoke Control in Hospitals

Full scale fire tests have been carried out in order to study the influence of different ventilating principles on the time point of fire detection and the smoke filling of a four-bed room. Using conventional mechanical ventilating systems as smoke exhaust systems the time difference left for evacuation of the fire room can be positively influenced. With the conventional ventilating system operating there is a significant difference between time points of detection of the ionization and optical smoke detectors, for both flaming and smoldering fire. Using the low momentum displacement ventilation this difference is reduced, resulting in possibilities for the ionization smoke detector to be optimized for both flaming and smoldering fires. Reference: Øystein Meland and Eimund Skåret, Smoke Control in Hospitals,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, No. 1, February 1986, p. 33.     

Designing escape routes in buildings

This paper discusses a design method for calculating pedestrian movement developed by Predtechenskii and Milinski and provides an egress model based upon this work for the evacuation of multistory buildings via staircases with regard to real evacuation tests in high rise office buildings. Furthermore, it briefly compares its predictions with regulatory requirements on means of escape. Reference: Ezel Kendik, Designing Escape Routes in Buildings,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, November 1986, p. 272.     

Analysis and design program for series piping systems

Computer program aids in the analysis and design of series piping systems. Reference: B. K. Hodge, Analysis and Design Program for Series Piping Systems,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 4, November 1985, p. 310.(Reprinted with permision fromHeating/Piping/Air Conditioning, April 1985, pp. 85–89. Penton — IPC, Rheinhold Publishing Division.)     

Metal fire extinguishment

Four sets of experiments were conducted in order to find the most efficient extinguishing agent for use on fires of metal dusts such as aluminum and magnesium. Parameters considered included time before application of agent, ratio of applied agent to metal dust, time to extinguishment, and active versus inert chemical composition of agents. A 30% active, 70% inert mixture of zinc stearate and sand was found to be an effective and economical extinguishing agent for metal dust fires. Reference: T. P. Sharma, B. B. Lal, and J. Singh, Metal Fire Extinguishment,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, May 1987, pp.     

Assessing toxic hazard as it relates to overall fire hazard

A framework is proposed for assessing hazards associated with the spread of smoke and hot gases from fires in buildings, and the current predictive capabilities for each component of that framework are described. Particular attention is given to the significance of the toxicity of the combustion products of a material in relation to its other fire properties. The prediction of the onset of hazardous conditions in a three room residential arrangement with upholstered furniture as the burning object is presented to illustrate the usefulness of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) smoke transport computer code, a key component of the framework. Reference: Andrew J. Fowell, Assessing Toxic Hazard as It Relates to Overall Fire Hazard,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 3, August 1985, pp. 199.     

Pool fires under atmosphere and ventilation in steady-state burning (part II)

Two pool fire tests for solvent burning were made to obtain the burning rate and the mass loss rate from burning pans under atmosphere and ventilation in a cell. From the data, burning parameters for the Spalding's modified model reported in Part I were determined in steady-state pool burning.Part I of this paper was published in the May 1987 issue ofFire Technology. Reference: Gunji Nishio and Satoru Machida, Pool Fires under Atmosphere and Ventilation in Steady-State Burning, Part II,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 3, August 1987, pp. 186–197.     

Pool fires under atmosphere and ventilation in steady-state burning (part I)

Modeling based on Spalding's theory was undertaken to obtain information on a solvent pool fire under atmosphere and ventilation in steady-state burning. The model comprised the modified B-number with burning parameters governing the burning rate of solvent. Mass loss rate and burning rate of solvent from the burning pan were governed by heat conduction through the pan wall for small pans and by turbulent free convective heat transfer for large pans.This paper will be published inFire Technology in two parts. Part II will appear in the August 1987 issue. Reference: Gunji Nishio and Satoru Machida, Pool Fires under Atmosphere and Ventilation in Steady-State Burning, Part I,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 1987, pp. 146–155.     

Performance of selected coatings applied to polystyrene block walls under simulated mine fire conditions

A test program was undertaken by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) to determine the feasibility of coating polystyrene block walls for fire protection. Selected coatings, used in the mining industry, were tested under semilarge scale, simulated mine fire conditions to determine the appropriate thicknesses of these coatings for protection of the polystyrene foam block against fire for specified time periods. Building plasters containing gypsum and perlite and an expanded vermiculite, portland cement, and limestone coating were particularly effective in protecting the foam blocks against the heat of the simulated mine fire. Reference: Steven J. Luzik, Performance of Selected Coatings Applied to Polystyrene Block Walls Under Simulated Mine Fire Conditions,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, No. 4, November 1986, p. 311.     

Fire protection of flammable work stations in the clean room environment of a microelectronic fabrication facility

An applied engineering program is described which investigates the fire safety of combustible wet stations used within microelectronic clean room fabrication facilities. The main concern involves the impact of a wet bench fire on the clean room environment of the fabrication facility. The effectiveness of the installed fire detection and suppression systems are discussed as well as the additional steps which should be taken in order to insure early detection and suppression of fires within wet benches. Reference: Fred L. Fisher, Robert Brady Williamson, Gary L. Toms and Dennis M. Crinnion, Fire Protection of Flammable Work Stations in the Clean Room Environment of a Microelectronic Fabrication Facility,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, No. 2, May 1986, p. 148.     

Development and application of a fire station placement model

This paper describes the development and application of a fire station placement model. The model is formulated as a mathematical programming model which locates p sites out of m candidate sites such that some function of the travel times of the first and second arriving fire units is maximized subject to several constraints. Among these constraints are limitations in the maximum allowable travel time to points in a region, requirements that certain sites be included or excluded, and a specification that a given number of existing sites be included.The model uses as an objective function a utility function based on the subjective preferences of fire department officials to travel times of the first and second arriving fire units. A modification of the Teitz and Bart node substitution heuristic is used to find the solution to the model.The model is applied to fire station locational decisions in Albany, NY. The model was run a number of times to provide insights into how some strategic decisions might be made. Reference: Jack M. Reilly and Pitu B. Mirchandani, Development and Application of a Fire Station Placement Model,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 3, August 1985, p. 181.     

The Florida palm coast fire: An analysis of fire incidence and residence characteristics

A quantitative analysis of the relationship between residential fire incidence, fire intensity, house characteristics, and location is presented. Fire intensity (ground vs. crown fire) was shown to be the most significant factor. Brush clearance and type of soffit vent were also shown to be related to fire incidence. Logit analysis was used to analyze the joint effect of the various factors. Five factors allowed the model to correctly predict whether a house burned in 83 percent of the observations. Reference: Robert Abt, David Kelly, and Mike Kuypers, The Florida Palm Coast Fire: An Analysis of Fire Incidence and Residence Characteristics,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 3, August 1987, pp. 186–197.Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 8241     

Investigating the unexposed surface temperature criteria of standard ASTM E119

Information and data were obtained to evaluate the unexposed surface temperature criteria of standard ASTM E119. The investigation consisted of: (1) reviewing literature to obtain information on the development of ASTM E119 and the unexposed surface temperature rise criteria, (2) conducting fire tests to obtain temperature data on slabs with various materials placed on the unexposed surface and (3) conducting ignition tests on these materials to obtain their approximate temperature at ignition. The information and data increased the knowledge concerning the relationship between the unexposed surface temperature rise criteria of ASTM E119 and the ignition temperature of common combustible materials.Winner of the 1985 Harry C. Bigglestone Award for Excellence in Written Communication of Fire Protection Concepts. Reference: Kenneth J. Schwartz and T. T. Lie, Investigating the Unexposed Surface Temperature Criteria of Standard ASTM E119,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 3, August 1985, p. 169.     

Fire drainage system

Present firesafety measures were conceived to deal with hypothetical fires spreading by destruction of successive compartment boundaries. A new firesafety system, referred to as the fire drainage system, is designed to cope with real-world fires spreading mainly by convection. It confines fire and smoke to the room of origin and to a small corridor element adjacent to the room. The system can be designed to operate without the use of water and electric energy. The fundamentals of its design are described and some experimental information is presented. Reference: T. Z. Harmathy and I. Oleszkiewicz, Fire Drainage System,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 1, February 1987, p. 26.This paper is a contribution from the Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada.     

Methodological problems associated with the Use of the Delphi technique

In this article some of the methodological problems associated with using the Delphi technique for the development of a Firesafety Evaluation (Points) Scheme are examined. These problems relate to: questionnaire design, the merits and demerits of Delphi groups versus panel groups, the definition of key terms (such as expert, consensus and stability), the reliability, validity and level of measurement achieved by Likert-type scaling techniques, and the differences in the decisionmaking processes of expert and nonexpert groups. Reference: T. J. Shields, G. W. H. Silcock, H. A. Donegan, and Y. A. Bell, Methodological Problems Associated with the Use of the Delphi Technique,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 3, August 1987, pp. 175–185.     

Physiological aspects of fire fighting

The conditions and requirements of the fire fighter and the unusual demands of fire fighting activities have received increased attention since the early 1970s. Other industries usually design physical performance requirements around the capabilities of the worker, but the fire fighter must respond to the constraints and requirements of the emergency. Recent research and its relationship to a fire fighter's physical profile are described and discussed. Reference: Paul O. Davis and Charles O. Dotson, Physiological Aspects of Fire Fighting,Fire Technology, Vol. 23, No. 3, November 1987, p. 280–291. Note: This paper is from a paper presented at the III Coloquio Internacional Sobre Equipos de Proteccion Personal, in Mallorca, Spain.     

Slide rule estimates of Fire Growth

A series of prediction methods has been assembled to provide an analytical basis for estimating fire growth in compartments. Solutions for each prediction method can be made using programmable scientific calculators. Prediction methods are presented for: fire size and growth rates, mass loss rates, radiant heat flux, flame height, radial flame impingement, heat flux to a ceiling, smoke filling of a room, carbon monoxide hazard with smoldering fires, temperature rise in a compartment, ventilation flow rate, flashover occurrence, corridor smoke transfer and filling, smoke concentration, visibility, flame spread rates, and fire burn time.These predictive methods are useful for estimating many of the critical elements related to fire behavior and help provide a better understanding of this complex phenomenon.This report appears as Appendix B inFire Growth in Combat Ships by J. G. Quintiere, H. R. Baum and J. R. Lawson, NBSIR 85-3159. Reference: J. R. Lawson and J. G. Quintiere, Slide Rule Estimates of Fire Growth,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 4, November 1985, p. 267.This paper is a contribution of the National Bureau of Standards and is not subject to copyright.     

Fire detection in computer facilities

A recent fire in a computer center in Canberra, Australia, prompted an investigation of the installed smoke detection system. The opportunity was also taken to evaluate alternate detection equipment in the actual center under operational conditions. One device tested was VESDA, a new highly sensitive smoke detector developed in Australia for clean occupancies such as computer rooms and telephone exchanges. Details of the test program and the effects of high room airflows on all forms of detectors are presented. The effectiveness of VESDA in giving very early warning of fire is demonstrated. Reference: Peter F. Johnson, Fire Detection in Computer Facilities,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, No. 1, February 1986, p. 14. Note: This paper is a modified version of a CIRL Major Report No. 251, 1984, prepared for Department of Housing and Construction, Canberra, Australia.