An exploratory consumer study of 3D printed food perception in a real-life military setting

3D printing has the potential to produce on-demand food tailored to individuals’ needs and preferences. The present study explored 3D printed food acceptance in a real-life military setting. Over a period of 4 weeks, soldiers consumed and evaluated multiple recovery snack bars. In week 1, participants received a benchmark bar that was created with conventional manufacturing processes. In week 2 to 4 participants received a 3D printed snack bar with increasing customisation options: choice of texture (soft or crunchy) in week 2; choice of texture and taste (sweet or savoury) in week 3; and choice of texture, taste and ingredients (4 types of dough, 13 types of filling) in week 4. Attitudes towards 3D food printing and potential drivers of 3D printed food acceptance were assessed in weeks 1 and 4 before and after repeated consumption of the snack bars.After repeated consumption participants judged 3D printed food to be significantly better as compared to before consumption (t = 2.86, p = 0.015). Food neophobia, food technology neophobia and food choice motives did not change during the experiment (all p > 0.05). The benchmark bar was liked better than the 3D printed bars. However, among the 3D printed bars, mean scores on overall liking, and liking of taste and texture were highest for the version that was customized most (week 4). Our findings illustrate that consumer empowerment, desired degree of personalisation, state of development and appropriateness of 3D food printing technology all play a role in 3D printed food acceptance.     

Negative emotions,positive actions: Food safety and consumer intentions to purchase ethical food in China

Although ensuring food safety is still an urgent social issue in China, ethical consumption practices are relatively new, and ethical food is not widely consumed. Chinese consumers often face confusing information about a particular food product's safety and are concerned about the situation. Drawing upon stress coping theory, this study examines whether consumer confusion and negative emotions drive intentions to adopt ethical food. Data collected from a sample of 505 consumers were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results show that consumer confusion has a significant impact on negative emotions, which in turn influence intentions to purchase ethical food products. This research advances the food preference literature by providing a new perspective on ethical consumption based on coping strategies. The findings are important for policymakers and business leaders seeking to develop and better promote safer and more ethical food programs in China.     

Beer choice and consumption determinants when craft beers are tasted: An exploratory study of consumer preferences

The aim of this paper is to study the emerging craft beer industry from a consumer preference perspective. The craft beer industry is one of the growing segments in the beverage industry and its increasing popularity also affects individuals’ commercial beer preferences and consumption trends, although no empirical study has yet been carried out in Europe on this topic. Our exploratory study is aimed at comparing the “purely” commercial beer consumer profile with that of commercial beer consumers who have already tasted craft beers. It was observed that aroma and perceived quality, as well as the preference for draft beer, drinking beer frequently or by oneself are all factors that explain the propensity of “purely” commercial beer drinkers to taste craft beer. It was also found that beer consumers’ evaluations of characteristics and brands differed depending on whether they had previously tasted craft beer or not. Moreover, craft beer is chosen according to different flavor preferences compared to commercial beer, it is mainly drunk by frequent beer drinkers in pubs and with family members and it is perceived to be of higher quality than commercial beer due to the raw materials used for brewing and its overall quality. These results can help both new entrepreneurs in the craft beer segment as well as big manufacturing firms in trying to better understand this new consumption trend in order to meet the new needs and preferences of beer consumers.     

Modelling consumer choice through the random regret minimization model: An application in the food domain

In line with findings on post-purchase food-choice regret, one can expect that pre-purchase anticipated regret with respect to forgone (non-chosen) alternatives has an impact on consumer food choices, especially when the choice is considered to be important. The traditional Random Utility Maximization (RUM) models for discrete choices may not fully capture this impact. This study investigates the usefulness and potential in the food domain of a discrete choice model that follows the regret minimization principle, the Random Regret Minimization (RRM) model, as an alternative and complement to existing RUM models. The two models are applied to consumer stated choices of cheese in a choice experiment. The study also investigates whether and to what extent a number of personality traits determine whether particular consumers rather choose according to utility-maximization, or regret-minimization principles. Results show that at the aggregate level the two models have a similar goodness of fit to the data and prediction ability. Still, each of them shows better fit for particular subgroups of consumers, based on personality traits. Hence, the present study reveals a potential for the RRM model applications in the food domain, and adds to the empirical literature supporting previous findings on the RRM model found in other contexts. Further research is needed to explore in which situations and for which consumer segments the RRM model is the most useful model.     

Not too ugly to be tasty: Guiding consumer food inferences for the greater good

The issue of food waste is an important societal challenge with a significant environmental impact. An important issue contributing to food waste is consumers’ unwillingness to purchase suboptimal food. Past literature has shown that people prefer perfectly formed food to abnormally shaped food when given a choice, but much of the mechanism underlying this preference is not well documented. Using a framework based on the halo effect, the authors focus on consumers affective and cognitive responses that cause them to shy away from produce that does not meet the usual aesthetic criteria. Results demonstrate that consumers find well-formed produce vs. deformed produce to be more aesthetically pleasing (beautiful) and that this positive affective reaction leads to more positive consumer inferences of taste, health, and quality. Results also indicate that consumers view sellers of well-formed produce to be more competent than sellers of deformed produce and that this perception is driven by perceptions of beauty and consumer inferences of taste, health, and quality. Lastly, results show that the effects of form on consumer inferences may depend on different distribution channels. Shopping at a farmers market mitigates the impact of the deformation on consumer inferences. Given that form and actual taste, health, and quality are not generally correlated, the results indicate that consumers are making inaccurate inferences. Exploring these inferences has the potential to open new avenues to educate consumers.     

Food satisfaction: Integrating feelings before,during and after food intake

Consumers’ satisfaction is important for the food industry to ensure product success. Determinants to food satisfaction are multifactorial and a method approaching the multiple determinants would provide a detailed picture of determinant behind consumers’ hedonic food appreciation.The aims of this study were (1) to develop a method that could give detailed information about sensory- and food satisfaction (2) to study differences in sensory satisfaction in a case study, and (3) to study the factors related to food satisfaction. Focus group interviews and a literature study provided an overview of factors with potential to affect food satisfaction. A total of four questionnaires, covering factors before-, during- and after intake as well as demographics, were developed to measure factors related to satisfaction. The questionnaires were utilised in a cross-over consumer study with 79 subjects consuming two sensory different variants of chicken soup. Soups were sensory evaluated utilising expert statements. The consumer study showed that sensory satisfaction was highly influenced by liking of taste and appearance, whereas liking of odour and texture influenced sensory satisfaction moderately. Food satisfaction was influenced by factors measured during- and post intake; sensory satisfaction, fulfilment of expectations, reason for ending intake, product performance relative to expectations, hunger and fullness after intake were found highly influential in food satisfaction. Pre-intake factors did not substantially influence food satisfaction. Though the use of multiple variables gave a detailed picture of factors involved in food satisfaction, there was still variation in food satisfaction that remained unaccounted.     

From sensory evaluation to sensory and consumer research of food: An autobiographical perspective

During the past decades, sensory evaluation of food quality has evolved and grown into a discipline that covers sensory and consumer research of foods and beverages. The present review deals with those aspects of the development in which I have been personally involved and have considered inspiring and important subject matters in the field. They are consumer responses to (1) salt, (2) fat, and (3) unfamiliar foods; (4) food choice and socio-cognitive segmentation, (5) responses to food in the elderly and young; and (6) genetic origins of food preferences. Perspectives of the field and of these specific areas are discussed, and some “words of wisdom” are offered for the younger generation of sensory-consumer researchers.     

Perceived situational appropriateness for foods and beverages: consumer segmentation and relationship with stated liking

A degree of inter-individual heterogeneity in perceived situational appropriateness for foods and beverages (F&B) was predicted to exist, and empirically confirmed in studies with >1000 Australian and New Zealand adult consumers (urban dwelling). Two main consumer segments labelled “adaptive” and “conforming” were identified. The main difference between the segments was in the number of F&B items considered appropriate for a certain eating occasion, with this number being smaller in the segments that seemed to more strongly conform to common norms about what is appropriate to eat and drink at breakfast-, lunch- and dinner-time. There was a positive relationship between perceived appropriateness and stated product liking in accordance with previous reports, and generally less liked foods/beverages were regarded as less appropriate. However, there was also evidence of non-linearity in this relationship such that some highly liked foods were inappropriate for a focal eating occasion (e.g., cereal/muesli at dinner time). Demographic/socio-economic and psychographic variables were largely unsuccessful in explaining segment differences, and, in particular, generalised trait tendency to conform did not differentiate consumers in “adaptive” and “conforming” segments. Food neophobia was, in some instances, linked to reduced perceived appropriateness, but generally, consumers with high neophobia (FNS > 50) responded similarly to the aggregate sample in terms of F&Bs considered to be high vs. low in appropriateness for eating occasions taking place at breakfast-, lunch- and dinner- time. Future research should extend to other F&B stimuli relevant to Australia and New Zealand, to different consumer populations and culturally appropriate F&B stimuli, and also seek to better understand the antecedents of perceived situational appropriateness and how these underpin consumer segments based on appropriateness.     

The influence of product preparation,familiarity and individual traits on the consumer acceptance of insects as food

Insects are highly valued as food in many cultures but have only recently gained interest in the West as a sustainable alternative to reduce the environmental impact of meat production. Despite the growing consumer interest in insect consumption, there is still a great disparity between curious trying and actual acceptance. The aim of this study was to examine how the product preparation, familiarity and individual traits (e.g. food neophobia) influence the consumer acceptance of insects as food. Dutch consumers (n = 976) evaluated 8 mealworm product images on 4 acceptability measures (product appropriateness, expected sensory-liking, willingness to buy, willingness to try). Product images varied according to mealworm visibility (visible/invisible), carrier flavour (savoury/sweet) and carrier origin (Western/Asian). High product acceptability was not simply achieved by adding mealworms to familiar foods. Acceptability depended very much on the perceived appropriateness of mealworms as food and the perceived appropriateness of the product combination. However, mealworm products were always expected to be inferior to the carrier products, even when visually identical. Familiarity with mealworms and individual traits played a relatively minor role, and influenced the willingness to try more than the other acceptability measures. We conclude that appropriate product design is important but insufficient to achieve consumer acceptance of insects as food in the West. Additional incentives are required to encourage acceptance beyond the mere willingness to try. We discuss the complexities underlying the consumer acceptance of insects as food and reflect on how acceptance might be increased in the future.     

The influence of product- and person-related factors on consumer hedonic responses to soy products

Consumers in Western countries increasingly appreciate health benefits of soy products. However, several barriers prevent full acceptance of these products. This study investigates the effects of product-related factors (perceived familiarity and expected healthiness) and person-related factors (food neophobia and health interest) on consumer hedonic responses to various soy products. In the pre-study, 48 German-speaking participants assessed the perceived familiarity, healthiness and tastiness for 21 soy products. In the main study, four soy products that differed in familiarity and healthiness were presented to German consumers (n = 327) as images supplemented by product names and slogans stressing either health or taste benefits. Participants rated their attitudes towards the product, product liking, taste expectations and willingness to try the products in a 2 (familiar or unfamiliar products) × 2 (healthy or tasty products) × 2 (low or high food neophobia) between-subject design. As hypothesized, neophilic consumers showed more positive responses to soy products compared to neophobic consumers. Neophobics showed more positive responses to familiar soy products, whereas the responses of neophilics were not influenced by product familiarity. Health interest positively influenced the willingness to try soy products. However, the effect of healthiness manipulation on hedonic responses to experimental products was not significant. The results of the study suggest that perceived familiarity might be more important for acceptance of soy products than expected healthiness. Successful marketing strategies for soy products should target neophobic consumers by increasing the level of familiarity of soy foods.     

The influence of country-of-origin stereotypes on consumer responses to food safety scandals: The case of the horsemeat adulteration

Food safety scandals are recurring events in the food industry worldwide and companies are not immune to these incidents. However, there is a paucity of studies that examine how consumers evaluate and respond to brands involved in food crises and how consumers’ prejudicial views about brands may bias these responses. Following attribution theory, the current study analyzes the psychological mechanisms through which consumers form judgments about a brand’s culpability in the aftermath of a food safety scandal. Furthermore, this study assesses how the dimensions of a brand’s country-of-origin (perceived competence and perceived warmth) affect the mechanism of blame attribution.A real food crisis, the 2013 European horsemeat adulteration scandal, provides the framework for an experimental study with 816 Italian consumers. The results show that perceived country-of-origin warmth diminishes consumers’ perceptions of internal locus, stability, and controllability of the food incident, thus decreasing consumers’ attributions of blame toward the faulty brand. Perceived competence increases consumers’ perceptions of the controllability of the harmful behavior which leads to higher attributions of blame. Higher blame attribution leads to lower intentions to buy the brand in the future. Furthermore, when consumers perceive the food scandal as highly severe and when they are highly ethnocentric, perceived competence diminishes consumers’ perceptions of internal locus and stability of the food incident.The theoretical contribution of the study and practical implications for food brand managers are addressed.     

The influence of auditory and visual information on the perception of crispy food

The influence of auditory and/or visual information on the perception of crispy food and on the physiology of chewing was investigated. Participants chewed biscuits of three different levels of crispness under four experimental conditions: no masking, auditory masking, visual masking, and auditory plus visual masking. The order of the four masking condition blocks was randomized. The sound of chewing was masked by loud sounds on a headphone and visual masking of the food was achieved by closing the eyes. We measured skull vibration and the number of chewing cycles until swallowing. Subsequently, texture and sound attributes were scored. Auditory masking led to significant lower scores on the attributes sound and snapping, but only for the participants who started the experiments with auditory plus visual masking. The other participants were not influenced by auditory masking. The memory of the unmodified stimuli helped to maintain accurate sound perception in later trials.     

Personality traits and consumer acceptance of controversial food technology: A cross-country investigation of genetically modified animal products

Recent breakthroughs in biotechnology have expanded the range of applications in animal agriculture. Acceptance of food products from these animals is expected to be controversial and requires a thorough understanding of consumer preferences and drivers of acceptance. This paper explores the role of personality, measured via the Big Six personality traits (Agency, Agreeableness, Openness, Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness), on consumer acceptance of a genetically modified pork product in the US (N = 945), China (N = 945) and Italy (N = 954). The effect of personality is most evident in US consumers with five out of six personality traits explaining preferences for genetically modified pork. Openness was the only trait that consistently explained consumer acceptance in our three countries and conscientiousness was found to be a good predictor in Western cultures. Our results reinforce the need to use psychological characteristics of consumers to understand controversial food acceptance and highlight the differential impact of personality across cultures.     

The influence of oral lubrication on food intake: A proof-of-concept study

As overeating, overweight and obesity remain public health concerns, it is crucial to design satiety-enhancing foods that suppress appetite and lower snack intake. Existing research identifies oro-sensory targets to promote satiation and satiety, yet it remains unclear as to whether it is ‘chewing’ or ‘oral lubrication’ that might amplify satiation signals. In this study, techniques from experimental psychology, food material science and mechanical engineering have been combined to develop model foods to investigate the role of chewing and oral lubrication on food intake. Novel model gels, similar in pleasantness, were given as a preload then their effects on subjective appetite and intake of a salty snack were measured in a between-subjects design. Three mint flavoured hydrogels were engineered to vary in their texture (fracture stress) and lubrication (inverse of coefficient of friction), and a control group received mint tea. Results showed that snack intake was suppressed by 32% after eating the low chewing/high lubricating preload compared to the high chewing/low lubricating preload (p < 0.05). Hunger ratings decreased from t₁ to t₃ (p < 0.05), however differences between conditions were subtle and not significant. Thus, this proof-of-concept study demonstrates that manipulating oral lubrication is a promising new construct to reduce snack intake that merits future research in the oro-sensory satiety domain.     

Health body priming and food choice: An eye tracking study

The “gaze bias theory” suggests that people tend to look longer at items that are eventually chosen. This was not entirely confirmed for food choice, a complex phenomenon influenced by many factors. Although it has been shown that health-related primes affect both consumer attention and choice, the effect of unhealthy body shape primes on these outcomes is largely unknown. Therefore, we here investigated how body primes, namely normal weight (NW), severely overweight (OW) and severely underweight (UW) body shapes, influenced attention and choice for low-calorie food (LcFd) and high-calorie food (HcFd). We hypothesized that OW and UW primes would activate opposing health goals (weight-loss vs. weight-gain respectively). Fifty normal weight sated females completed a primed food choice task in which choices between a LcFd and HcFd, matched for subjective liking, were presented after control or human body shapes (NW, UW or OW). In each trial participants had to identify the shape (i.e., non-human, human male or human female) and then choose the food they wanted to eat at that moment. Gaze was recorded by an eye tracker. Results showed that, although primes did not influence the choice, the total dwell time on chosen HcFd was higher when preceded by an OW prime compared with chosen LcFd and chosen HcFd preceded by an UW prime. Also, both total dwell time and the number of fixations were higher for chosen food compared with non-chosen food as well as for HcFd compared with LcFd without a corresponding higher proportion of HcFd choice. Overall, these data shed light on the interactions between attention, health body priming and food choice.     

Balancing consumer and societal requirements for sheep meat production: An Australasian perspective

Although there has been a decline in sheep numbers in Australia and New Zealand, both countries remain significant producers and exporters of sheep meat. The ongoing demand for more sustainable and ethical animal farming systems and practices requires sheep production industries to be both vigilant and responsive to consumer and the broader societal needs. Demonstration of continuous improvement in animal welfare is paramount and the welfare risks and challenges confronting Australasian sheep industries now and into the future are discussed.     

Impact of refreshing perception on mood, cognitive performance and brain oscillations: An exploratory study

The aim of the present research was to evaluate the effect of refreshing perception on mental energy in terms of cortical activation and cognitive performance. Refreshing perception was induced by the consumption of an optimized citrus-flavored water ice with specific sensory properties leading to cooling and mouth-wetting sensations. Comparison treatments were standard water ices differing in refreshing intensity but matched in flavor and energy content, and a glass of water. In a first experiment, electroencephalographic activity of participants was monitored while performing a task of sustained attention. Relative to both comparison treatments, results revealed that the optimized water ice improved cortical activation in the alpha and beta powers known to be involved in neural circuits of attention, working memory and sensory-motor integration. In a second experiment, results revealed improved performance of attention after consumption of the optimized water ice relative to comparison treatments. Altogether, our results provide preliminary evidence supporting the beneficial impact of refreshing perception, reflected in the enhancement of cortical activation necessary for recruiting optimal resources for task performance.     

Preferred information strategies for food allergic consumers. A study in Germany, Greece, and The Netherlands

Information provided on food packaging is currently the most important method enabling food allergic consumers to eliminate allergens from their diet. This study aimed to identify the preferences of food allergic consumers regarding different information provision scenarios. Respondents (N = 287) filled out a web-based questionnaire on their preferences regarding a food label, an in-store booklet, and an ICT-solution. ICT methods will not replace effective food labelling, but may be used to supplement information provided by labels. Recommendations for information delivery to food allergic patients in the form of labels and booklets, as well as personalised (novel ICT) approaches, are provided.     

Information effects on consumer attitudes toward three food technologies: Organic production, biotechnology, and irradiation

It is important to understand how information supplied to consumers affects their attitudes about food technologies because these attitudes can impact market behavior. As technologies are actively promoted and cross-promoted, the relation between one’s knowledge of, and attitude toward, a technology may well depend on the source of one’s information. We examine the relation between knowledge and attitudes toward food technologies and find that greater self-rated knowledge of each technology is associated with positive attitudes about that technology. We also find strong negative cross-informational effects; increased knowledge of one technology leads to more negative attitudes of other technologies. This effect may be due to negative information being provided by opponents of specific technologies.     

Low-sodium roasted peanuts: effects of salt mixtures (NaCl,KCl and glycine) on consumer perception and purchase intent

The effects of ten treatment combinations of two salts (NaCl, KCl) and glycine were evaluated on low-sodium roasted peanuts. Consumers’ (N = 330, recruited from college campus) liking, emotions, perceived saltiness and bitterness intensity, satisfaction and purchase intent (PI) of peanuts were measured following a balanced incomplete block design (t = 10, k = 3, r = 9, b = 30, λ = 2, e₂ = 0.74). Emotions and PI were evaluated both before and after presenting a low-sodium health benefit message. Sodium content of peanuts was reduced from 140 mg Na/50 g peanuts to 41.67 mg Na/50 g without significantly affecting liking scores and with positive PI over 60%. In general, high bitterness and low saltiness intensity ratings negatively affected liking and satisfaction. Consumers expressed less satisfaction when perceived saltiness intensity was ‘Not Enough’ than when ‘Too Much.’ Based on optimisation analysis, any formulation within the range of 59-100/0-40/0-12.5% NaCl/KCl/Gly- representing a potential 37% sodium reduction past minimum ‘low sodium’ requirements- will yield an acceptable product.