Exploring depression and problematic internet use among college females: A multisite study

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to assess associations between depression and problematic internet use (PIU) among female college students, and determine whether Internet use time moderates this relationship.MethodThis cross-sectional survey included 265 female college students from four U.S. universities. Students completed the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), the Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) and self-reported daily Internet use. Analyses included multivariate analysis of variance and Poisson regression.ResultsParticipants reported mean age of 20.2 years (SD = 1.7) and were 84.9% Caucasian. The mean PHQ-9 score was 5.4 (SD = 4.6); the mean PRIUSS score was 16.4 (SD = 11.1). Participants’ risk for PIU increased by 27% with each additional 30 min spent online using a computer (RR = 1.27, 95% CI: 1.14–1.42, p < .0001). Risk for PIU was significantly increased among those who met criteria for severe depression (RR = 8.16 95% CI: 4.27–15.6, p < .0001). The PHQ-9 items describing trouble concentrating, psychomotor dysregulation and suicidal ideation were most strongly associated with PIU risk.ConclusionsThe positive relationship between depression and PIU among female college students supports screening for both conditions, particularly among students reporting particular depression symptoms.     

The Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) for adolescents and young adults: Scale development and refinement

Problematic Internet Use (PIU) is a growing health concern among adolescents and young adults. The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to develop and refine a theoretically-grounded and psychometrically-validated assessment instrument for PIU specifically tailored to adolescents and young adults. An item pool was developed using concept mapping and a review of the literature, and administered to 714 students from two universities between 18 and 25 years of age. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used in a development subsample (n = 500) to construct the scale. A cross-validation sample (n = 214) was used to confirm the scale’s reliability. The Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) is an 18-item scale with three subscales: Social Impairment, Emotional Impairment, and Risky/Impulsive Internet Use. Based on its strong theoretical foundation and promising psychometric performance, the PRIUSS may be a valuable tool for screening and prevention efforts in this population.     

Temperament and adolescent problematic Internet use: The mediating role of deviant peer affiliation

Problematic Internet use (PIU) creates psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person's life. This study examined the unique roles of four dimensions of temperament (effortful control, sensation seeking, anger/frustration, and shyness) on adolescent PIU, as well as the mediating role of deviant peer affiliation (DPA) on these pathways. Participants were 2758 Chinese adolescents (46% male; mean age = 13.53 years, SD = 1.06) selected by stratified and random cluster sampling from 10 middle schools in southern China. After covariates were controlled, structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that effortful control negatively predicted PIU, while sensation seeking, anger/frustration and shyness positively predicted PIU. SEM also identified that DPA partially mediated the pathway from all four temperament dimensions to PIU. These findings provide evidence for the relationship between specific temperament dimensions and adolescent PIU, and highlight DPA as one explanation for the prevalence of PIU.     

Stressful life events and problematic Internet use by adolescent females and males: A mediated moderation model

In a sample of 660 adolescents (M age = 14.14 years; 55% females), this study examined a mediated moderation model in which temperamental effortful control and sensation seeking moderated the relationship between stressful life events and problematic Internet use (PIU), and this moderating effect was mediated by maladaptive cognitions. Findings revealed that effortful control buffered the risk of stressful life events for females’ PIU, and this effect was mediated through maladaptive cognitions. The risk-buffering effect of effortful control for males’ PIU was not significant, although it buffered the risk of maladaptive cognitions for PIU. The risk-enhancing effect of sensation seeking was not significant in both female and male adolescents. In addition, males scored higher on risks but lower on protective factors of PIU than females, which explain the gender difference in PIU. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

Problematic internet use,psychopathology, personality,defense and coping

Many international studies in the field of Internet use and Problematic Internet Use (PIU) have shown strong and frequent relationships with psychopathology. However, few researches have investigated the relationships between PIU and personality variables such as defense, coping and pathological traits. The aim of the present study was to explore the rate of PIU among French users and its relationships with psychopathological (depressive symptoms, self-esteem, pathological personality traits) and psychological variables (defense mechanisms and coping strategies). A sample of 786 participants, aged between 18 and 35 years old (M = 23.7; SD = 4.5) has been recruited online and completed several scales assessing PIU, time spent online, socio demographic, psychological and psychopathological variables. More than 20% of the sample had PIU. Compared to non-problematic users, they had significant higher scores of all personality disorder clusters, non-adaptive coping and depressive symptoms. Among the total sample, PIU was predicted by Clusters B and C personality traits, immature and autistic fantasy defense styles, non-adaptive coping strategies and depressive symptoms. Significant gender differences have been retrieved. Psychological and psychopathological variables, including personality traits should be further explored, and gender differences always taken into account when assessing PIU.     

Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioral measurement instrument

The paper presents results from an exploratory study that: (1) developed a theory-based measure of PIU and (2) administered the instrument to a sample of undergraduate students to assess the associations among PIU and several psychosocial variables including, depression, self-esteem, loneliness, and shyness. A new instrument, the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) was designed to operationalize Davis's [Computers in Human Behavior, 17 (2001), 187] theoretical construct of generalized PIU. The GPIUS and several measures of psychosocial well-being were administered to 386 undergraduate students. Results from this preliminary study indicate that the GPIUS is both reliable and valid. A factor analysis identified seven unique sub-dimensions of the GPIUS, including: mood alteration, perceived social benefits available online, negative outcomes associated with Internet use, compulsive Internet use, excessive amounts of time spent online, withdrawal symptoms when away from the Internet, and perceived social control available online. All GPIUS subscales were correlated with psychosocial health variables including: depression, loneliness, shyness, and self-esteem. A regression analysis identified several important psychosocial and cognitive–behavioral predictors of negative outcomes associated with generalized PIU. Results also suggest that one's preference for computer-mediated social interaction, as opposed to face-to-face interaction, plays a role in the etiology, development, and outcomes of generalized PIU.     

Genetic and environmental influences on problematic Internet use: A twin study

Despite many studies on the prevalence and correlates of problematic Internet use (PIU), we know little about its etiological components. Our main aim is to find out to what extent PIU is influenced by genetic and environmental factors using the classic twin design. A total of 237 Turkish twin-pairs aged 10–25 participated in the study. PIU was measured using the ‘Problematic Internet Use Scale’ (PIUS) developed by Ceyhan, Ceyhan and Gürcan. For male twin-pairs, the monozygotic (MZ) twin correlations were larger than the dizygotic (DZ) twin correlations, indicating that genetic factors influenced scores on the PIUS. However, for female twin-pairs, the MZ correlations were smaller than the DZ correlations for the PIUS, showing that genetic factors did not play a role in female twin-pairs. The influence of both genetic and environmental factors was explored with model-fitting analysis. Results showed that both for the “social comfort/benefit” and “negative consequences associated with the Internet use” sub-dimensions, the best-fitting models were the ADE models whereas both for the “excessive use” sub-dimension and “PIUS-Total”, the best-fittings models were the ACE models. The key result of this study is that the genetic and non-shared environmental effects are equally influential on the overall PIU in male twin-pairs.     

Parent–adolescent communication,parental Internet use and Internet-specific norms and pathological Internet use among Chinese adolescents

Data were collected from 3556 Chinese junior and senior high school students to explore the associations between adolescent pathological Internet use (PIU) and parental variables, including parent–adolescent communication, parental Internet use and parental Internet-specific norms regarding adolescent Internet use. In particular, this study considered the different role of parental variables under two conditions: parental norms that were consistent or inconsistent with parents’ Internet use behaviors. The participants were asked to answer an anonymous questionnaire that included all mentioned factors. The results revealed an 11% rate of adolescent PIU, and hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that parent–adolescent communication predicted PIU negatively under both conditions. When parental norms were consistent with their Internet use behaviors, parental norms predicted adolescent PIU negatively; conversely, when parental norms were inconsistent with their Internet use behaviors, parental behaviors predicted adolescent PIU positively. Implications for family-based prevention and the limitations of this study are discussed.     

A repeat cross-sectional analysis of the psychometric properties of the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) with adolescents from public and private schools

The development and validation of compulsive Internet use instruments has recently gained the attention of the research community. Recent literature has recommended examining the psychometric properties of different assessment instruments with diverse user groups, cultures and populations. To address this need, the present study examined the psychometric properties of the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) with adolescent Internet users attending public and private schools, using a repeated cross-sectional study. Three studies were carried out, namely Study A (n = 2369), Study B (n = 997) and Study C (n = 274), the results of which suggest that CIUS possesses excellent factorial and construct validity and reliability across time, and is suitable for both public and private school attending adolescents. Additionally, the study examined the powers of demographics and technology accessibility attributes in predicting CIUS among adolescent Internet users over time. It was found that male adolescents with low life satisfaction and low academic performance tend to experience compulsive Internet use; personal mobile Internet access and daily time spent on Internet use also significantly predicted CIUS scores. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are presented.     

Toward a comprehensive theory of problematic Internet use: Evaluating the role of self-esteem,anxiety, flow,and the self-rated importance of Internet activities

Problematic Internet use (PIU) has long been a matter of public concern. Study 1 examined the correlates of a well-validated measure of Internet addiction [Young, K. S. (1998). Caught in the net. New York: John Wiley and Sons] with 315 students (39% male). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that low self-esteem, unrealistic optimism, and the importance of 7-positive activities (I7PA) all contributed to the prediction of PIU. The inclusion of controls for aspects of Internet uses and demographic characters showed a clear distinction between PIU and frequent Internet use. Subjects who anticipated that negative outcomes were more likely to happen to them than to peers were none-the-less more likely to engage in PIU. The more important positive activities were, the greater the PIU. SEM model suggested that unrealistic optimism was best treated as part of PIU and that low self-esteem and the I7PA were the powerful predictors of PIU. Study 2 tested SEM models of psychosocial characteristics with 279 students (48% male). Anxiety and flow were added as predictors and the felt safety for social contacts was added to Global PIU following Caplan [Caplan, S. E. (2002). Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: Development of a theory-based cognitive-behavioral measurement instrument. Computers in Human Behavior, 18, 553–575]. The more complex model provided excellent fit and showed that low self-esteem, anxiety, and the I7PA were positively related to PIU. The relationship both of flow and sensation-seeking was mediated by the 17PA. Research on the topic has been relatively atheoretical. We propose a theoretical template to guide future research on PIU.     

Frequency is not enough: Patterns of use associated with risk of Internet addiction in Portuguese adolescents

This paper reports an exploratory analysis of the relation between Internet addiction and patterns of use among Portuguese adolescents (n = 2617) from the WHO 2010 Health Behavior in School-aged children study, with a short version of Young's Internet Addiction Test (the brief Internet Addiction Questionnaire – bIAQ) and self-reports on online behaviors and access. Two-Step Cluster analysis identified two clusters of users based on their usage pattern: a minority of high-frequency users, with higher bIAQ scores, and a majority of low-frequency users, with lower bIAQ scores. Low and high-frequency users are particularly distinct in specific activities, which converges with previous research showing addiction to specific Internet activities rather than to the Internet as a whole.     

Factorial validity of problematic Internet use scales

There exists a number of multidimensional measurement scales for problematic Internet use (PIU) with varying factor structures. This study reviews the factor analytic techniques used to develop these measures and discusses their implications for the factorial validity, particularly discriminant validity, of these PIU scales. To further illustrate these points, we reformulate the four-factor Online Cognition Scale into a more parsimonious two-factor measure (i.e., dependency and distraction) and demonstrate its factorial validity as well as robustness across student and working adult samples. Contributions of this research are discussed.     

Comparing online opportunities and risks among Israeli children and youth Hebrew and Arabic speakers

This study explores the relationships between application usage, online communication patterns, problematic Internet use (PIU) of online applications, and online self-disclosure among children from culturally different groups. An online survey was administered in Hebrew and Arabic among 3867 Israeli 7–17 year old, including Jews, Arabs, and Bedouins. The level of PIU was relatively low—only 9.5% scored “very high” in the PIU index. For all the groups the highest level of communication was reported for safe interactions with family and friends, lower level for purely virtual communication with online acquaintances, and the lowest level for meeting online acquaintances face-to-face. However, various forms of the online communication patterns and use of applications differed across the groups, suggesting cultural diversity in Internet usage among children in the same country. PIU and self-disclosure explained 47.3% of variance in risky e-communication activities (e.g. sending ones' photos to online acquaintances, providing them with a school or home address, and meeting them face-to-face), as well as 34.4% of variance in exposure to unpleasant online experiences (e.g. receiving messages, pictures, or videos that make the children feel uncomfortable). However, both PIU and self-disclosure were unrelated to educational activities and to the use of educational applications.     

Neck pain prevalence and associated occupational factors in Portuguese office workers

ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess the prevalence of neck pain and to identify associated occupational factors in Portuguese office workers.BackgroundThere is still necessary to quantify the association of the use of new technologies with neck pain in office workers.MethodsSix hundred-and-one office workers completed online questionnaires with questions related to anthropometric parameters, work-related variables, workstation setup, and musculoskeletal pain from the Portuguese version of the Standardized Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire.ResultsThe prevalence of neck pain was 56.1%. An average of 35.6% of the office workers with neck pain reported pain in more than three body segments. The significantly risk factors were “age between 50 and 65” [OR: 1.92 (1.26–2.91) P = 0.002], “working without break for 2 h” [OR: 1.82 (1.00–3.31) P = 0.05], “more than 3 h” [OR: 2.41 (1.35–4.10) P = 0.003], screen localization not centered” [OR: 2.01 (1.01–4.00) P = 0.045], and “use of computer mouse more than 50% of the worktime” [OR: 2.05 (1.14–3.71) P = 0.017].ConclusionThere was a high prevalence of neck pain and a considerable number of painful body segments in office workers. Age, working without break, screen localization and the use of computer mouse where the significant risk factors associated with the development of neck pain.Relevance to industryA high prevalence of neck pain and number of areas with pain in office workers require a detailed pain mechanism assessment. There were associated occupational risk factors for the development of neck pain. Call for concerted actions to explore optimal and efficient management plans.     

Problematic internet use among older adolescents: A conceptual framework

Problematic internet use (PIU) is of growing significance to adolescent health, but lacks a strong conceptual framework to guide ongoing work. We used Concept Mapping methodology to construct a theoretical framework describing PIU. This validated approach includes five steps: preparation, generation (brainstorming), structuring (sort and rank), representation (statistical analysis) and interpretation (focus groups). Analysis included hierarchical cluster analysis over the overall square similarity matrix to determine a cluster map. A total of 193 college students participated in one or more phases of the study. Students were from 13 universities across 10 states, had an average age of 19.4 years (SD = 1.8), were 67% female and 77% Caucasian. A total of 20 health professionals participated. The seven clusters depicted on the PIU Concept Map include: psychosocial risk factors, physical impairment, emotional impairment, social/functional impairment, risky internet use, impulsive internet use and internet use dependence. The stress value for the fit of the multidimensional solution to the structuring data was 0.28, indicating adequate fit. The concept map may be used towards development of a future comprehensive model of PIU as well as scale development efforts.     

Structure and function of maladaptive cognitions in Pathological Internet Use among Chinese adolescents

This study empirically investigated the structure and function of maladaptive cognitions related to Pathological Internet Use (PIU) among Chinese adolescents. To explore the structure of maladaptive cognitions, this study validated a Chinese Adolescents’ Maladaptive Cognitions Scale (CAMCS) with two samples of adolescents (n1 = 293 and n2 = 609). The results of the exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis revealed that CAMCS included three distinct factors, namely, “social comfort,” “distraction,” and “self-realization.” To examine the function of maladaptive cognitions, this study tested an updated cognitive-behavioral model in the third sample of 1059 adolescents. The results of structural equation model analyses verified both the direct effect of maladaptive cognitions on PIU and their mediating role in the relationships between distal factors (social anxiety and stressful life events) and PIU among Chinese adolescents. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings were discussed.     

Social relationship on problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescents in South Korea: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and self-control

Despite previous research efforts on identifying the risk and protective factors of problematic Internet use (PIU), the specific mechanism among these factors are largely unknown. Thus, the present study examined the effect of adolescents’ social relationships on their PIU, as well as the effect of self-esteem as a mediator and the effect of self-control as a moderator. Survey data from 750 South Korean middle and high school students in Seoul and Gyeonggi areas were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results are as follows. First, PIU is significantly associated with relationship with peers and with mother. Second, self-esteem did not mediate the effect of communication with mother on PIU, but was found to partially mediate the effect of peer relationship on PIU. Third, adolescents’ self-control significantly moderated the indirect effect of peer relationship on PIU via self-esteem. Through detailed analyses, this study identified self-esteem as a mediator and self-control as a moderator in the relationship between social relationships and PIU. Implications of these results for understanding the relationship among social relationships, self-esteem, self-control, and PIU are discussed.     

Gaming-contingent self-worth,gaming motivation,and Internet Gaming Disorder

The relationship between problematic gaming behavior and self-esteem is well-documented (King & Delfabbro, 2014). Moreover, the basic needs component of Self-Determination Theory has also been proposed as an organizing framework to understand gaming motivation (Lafrenière et al., 2012, Ryan et al., 2006). Building on these ideas, the current study describes the development of a measure of contingent self-worth (Crocker et al., 2003, Crocker and Wolfe, 2001) specific to gaming experiences within Massively-Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs), and explores the association between Gaming-Contingent Self-Worth (GCSW) and symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). A sample of MMORPG players was recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (n = 600) to evaluate the reliability and validity of a GCSW scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used to identify a 29-item measure comprised of four components, including validation seeking, reward orientation, competition focus, and detachment. Additional analyses supported the hypothesis that GCSW is a strong predictor of IGD symptoms, beyond the contribution of motivation based on behavioral activities within the game.     

Beyond search and communication: Development and validation of the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS)

Internet self-efficacy is a pivotal construct for understanding a wide range of online activities. Human activity has been developing in new directions along with the evolution of the Internet over the last few decades. A self-efficacy measure which might appropriately reflect these changes is still lacking in the literature. To address this research gap, the current study developed the Internet Self-efficacy Scale (ISS) and tested its validity and reliability. A sample of 349 undergraduate students completed an assessment battery including the ISS. A 17-item five-factor model was extracted from an EFA. Using a CFA, the 17-item five-factor model obtained from the EFA was cross-validated and the results revealed acceptable model fits where χ²(df = 107) = 198.987, NFI = .918, CFI = .960, and RMESA = .067 (95% C.I.; 052, .081). Also, the ISS showed good convergent validity, evidenced by the significant relationships with Internet outcome expectancy and Internet anxiety.     

Cross-lagged relationships between problematic Internet use and lifestyle changes

Cross-lagged analysis of panel survey data collected from Taiwanese college students (initially 387 males and 370 females) was used to examine the temporal relationship between problematic Internet use (PIU) and lifestyle changes during the first year in college. We hypothesized that a reciprocal relationship might exist between PIU and lifestyle changes. Structural equation modeling was adopted to test several nested cross-lagged relationship models. The results showed that four measures of lifestyle changes and PIU were moderately to highly stable across one year. Moreover, PIU in freshman year predicted negative changes in lifestyle in the following year, including a reduction of physical and social activities, irregular diet and unhealthy sleep. Lifestyle changes in freshman year, in contrast, did not predict PIU in sophomore year; the hypothesized reciprocal relationship between PIU and lifestyle changes was not warranted. Implications and limitations are discussed.