Cracking mechanism of secondary lining for a shallow and asymmetrically-loaded tunnel in loose deposits

Tunnels constructed in loose deposits with low strength and complex composition are usually subjected to asymmetrical stresses at the entrance and exit. The secondary tunnel lining is prone to excessive deformation, cracking, or even collapse, seriously affecting the safety of tunnel construction and operation. In this paper, a large shallow highway tunnel in loose deposits is used as an example to study the cracking mechanism of secondary lining. Triaxial consolidated-drained shear tests are carried out on large remolded specimens to obtain the mechanical parameters of the surrounding soil. Three-dimensional numerical modeling is conducted based on the field monitoring data to simulate the process of tunnel construction and to analyze the mechanical mechanism of cracking in the secondary lining. It is shown that even with the 30 m advance pipe roof at the tunnel entrance, the apparent difference in stiffness between the retaining wall and the surrounding soil results in an obvious stress concentration at the spring of the secondary lining near the end of the retaining wall, due to the effect of highly asymmetrical stresses. In addition, loose deposits are very sensitive to construction disturbances. Large horizontal deformation towards the lower topography occurs during tunnel construction. With increasing overburden depth, the stress concentration at the spring level and the horizontal deformation in the secondary lining increases, which are the main reasons for cracking in the secondary lining. These findings can be useful for tunnel design and construction in the similar type of loose deposits.     

Shaking table tests of tunnel linings in progressive states of damage

Tunnels have long been assumed to be able to withstand earthquakes and suffer little damage. However, investigations of tunnels after the Wenchuan earthquake in China revealed that over 30 tunnel linings were cracked. Different types of cracks were found in almost all the tunnel linings. In this study, a series of shaking table tests were conducted on scaled tunnel models under seismic excitations with increasing intensities. White noise sweep tests were interlaced with the seismic excitations to identify the damage in the tunnel linings. The accelerations and strains of the tunnel lining were measured. The test results are discussed based on the dominant frequencies, amplification factor, and lining strains. Furthermore, this paper presents the results of damage identification for various states of damage using the white noise sweep method. The dominant frequencies decreased with an increase of the input peak ground acceleration (PGA), which also reflected the damage of the tunnel lining. The dominant frequencies decreased by approximately 32% for an input PGA intensity of approximately 0.6 g, but the first cracks could still be visually detected. The cracks gradually propagate with the PGA increasing from 0.6 to 0.8 g. The effect of lining damage on the seismic performance of tunnel linings should be considered in the seismic design of tunnels.     

黄土隧道地基湿陷变形评价方法探讨

 隧道穿越自重湿陷性黄土地层时,可能遭受浸水作用下地基湿陷变形的附加作用而产生结构破坏。针对隧道衬砌结构的湿陷性黄土地基,结合隧道围岩及地基的自重湿陷变形特征,首先,提出浅埋隧道围岩压力、衬砌结构自重荷载构成基底压力和隧道两侧基底面分布土层自重共同作用下地基土的附加应力计算方法,以及考虑地基土自重应力的湿陷压缩应力计算方法。其次,在基本物性与构度、构度与结构压缩屈服应力、孔隙比和初始孔隙比比值与压缩应力和结构压缩屈服应力比值关系的基础上,建立自重湿陷系数和湿陷系数的计算方法。依据大厚度自重湿陷黄土场地不同埋深范围黄土具有不同自重湿陷系数门槛值的特征,得到了场地的自重湿陷变形和隧道地基的湿陷变形的计算方法。最后,通过数值计算分析,模拟隧道地基湿陷变形不同沉降差作用下衬砌结构应力场和塑性域发展,随着不均匀湿陷变形的增加,隧道衬砌结构塑性区范围不断增大,并结合铁路路基沉降控制标准,建议隧道地基湿陷变形0～5 cm为一级、5～10 cm为二级、大于10 cm为三级。     

Full-scale experiment and CFD simulation on smoke movement and smoke control in a metro tunnel with one opening portal

Three full-scale model experiments were conducted in a unidirectional tube, which is a part of a metro tunnel with one end connected to an underground metro station and the other end opened to outside in Chongqing, PR China. Three fire HRRs, 1.35 MW, 3 MW and 3.8 MW were produced by pool fires with different oil pan sizes in the experiments. Temperature distributions under the tunnel ceiling along the longitudinal direction were measured. At the same time, CFD simulations were conducted under the same boundary conditions with the experiments by FDS 5.5. In addition, more FDS simulation cases were conducted after the FDS simulation results agreed with the experimental results. The simulation results show that the smoke temperature and the decay rate of the temperature distribution under the tunnel ceiling along the longitudinal direction increase as HRR increases. The smoke exhausts effectively from the tunnel under mechanical ventilation system, whether the emergency vent is activated as a smoke exhaust or an air supply vent. The operation mode of the mechanical ventilation system depends on the evacuation route.     

Numerical comparison of performance between traditional and alternative jet fans in tiled tunnel in emergency ventilation

In this paper a computational study was carried out to evaluate the performance of longitudinal ventilation system equipped with an alternative jet fan with respect to traditional one in case of fire in tiled tunnel. The alternative jet fan is equipped with inclined silencers (pitch angle α = 6°) in order to reduce the Coanda effect and consequently shear stress on the tunnel ceiling. The fire was simulated setting heat flux on HGV surface. Computational fluid dynamic analysis was applied to simulate the ventilation in the unidirectional tunnel through κ–ɛ model. The comparison conducted in terms of total thrust required to prevent back-layering phenomena and numerical results were provided in terms of thrust of jet fan values, average velocity values and temperature profiles, for different tunnel slope values. Furthermore the authors have compared the critical velocity provided by CFD analysis with critical velocity provided in the literature.     

Time-dependent behavior of tunnel lining in weak rock mass based on displacement back analysis method

Weak rock mass behavior is an important and challenging consideration during construction and utilization of a tunnel. Tunnel surrounding ground deformation in weak rocks causes to gradual development of loading on the support system and threats the opening stability. In this research, time-dependent behavior of Shibli twin tunnels was investigated using laboratory testing, monitoring data, and finite difference numerical simulation approaches. The host rock of Shibli tunnels are mainly composed of gray to black Shale, Marl and calcareous Shale. Geological maps and reports demonstrate a heavily jointed condition in the host rock through two orogenic phases. The experiment was organized in following order to understand the behavior of the rock mass around the tunnels. At first, triaxial creep test were conducted on intact rock specimens. Then, the time-dependent behavior of the tunnel host rock was numerically simulated considering Burger-creep visco-plastic model (CVISC). Finally, displacement based direct back analysis using univariate optimization algorithm was applied. Also, the properties of the CVISC model and initial stress ratio were estimated. Numerical modeling was verified by its comparison with tunnel displacement monitoring results. The creep behavior of the rock mass was predicted during tunnel service life based on back analysis results. Results show that thrust force, bending moment, and the resulting axial stresses will gradually increase at the spring line of the final lining. After 55 years of tunnel utilization the compressive strengths of lining concrete will not be stable against the induced-stresses by thrust force and bending moment, thus the tunnel inspection and rehabilitation are recommended.     

深埋长大隧道交叉段衬砌裂缝成因分析与处治

通过对某高速公路深埋隧道主、横洞交叉段开洞侧主洞衬砌裂缝的现场检测及性状分析，研究对比了可能引起衬砌开裂的各种因素，得出了开裂的主要原因，认为隧道交叉段地层工程地质情况复杂，构造应力在应力场构成中占有很大比例，水平应力要比竖向应力大，且在横洞开挖后。主洞开洞侧截面承载能力一定程度上有所削弱，衬砌受力不均匀，出现应力集中现象，从而导致混凝土开裂；基于现场地质参数及裂缝成因初步分析，利用有限元分析软件对衬砌开裂段的应力场及位移场进行了模拟，模拟结果验证了现场成因分析所得结论的正确性；基于现场裂缝实际情况，提出了详细的裂缝处治措施，可为今后解决类似隧道衬砌开裂问题提供参考。     

Characteristics and mechanisms of large deformation in the Zhegu mountain tunnel on the Sichuan–Tibet highway

The Zhegu mountain tunnel is a typical long, deep-buried highway tunnel at a high altitude, subjected to low temperatures and high geostress. The tunnel is excavated in carbon phyllite and slate at depths of up to 1000 m below ground, which has resulted in extreme deformation, especially in a depth of 3 m from the tunnel perimeter. The maximum deformation was monitored to be 60 cm, with a maximum deformation speed of 39.3 mm/day. In addition, it took 60–120 days to complete 90% of the deformation. The deformation of the Zhegu mountain tunnel is characterized by serious subsidence of the arch, squeezing outwards of sidewalls, buckling failure of sidewalls and local collapse. The swelling of soft rock is found not to be a main factor of large deformation in the subject tunnel. Three mechanisms of large deformation are derived based on the characteristics and geological conditions, which are plastic flow of soft rock, shear sliding of wedges, and bending of thin-layered soft rock.     

Response of a circular metallic hollow beam to an impulsive loading

A model of the dynamic response of a relatively long circular hollow section beam to a uniform blast modeled as an impulsive loading is developed in order to reveal the characteristic features of deformation and energy absorption of hollow section beams under such loading. A two-phase analytical model is proposed for a circular metallic hollow beam made of a strain-rate insensitive material. Both local and global deformations build up simultaneously during the first phase, and then only global bending occurs during the second phase. Because mainly large plastic deformations develop in the hollow section, the elastic deformations are neglected and a rigid-plastic method of analysis is applied. The responses of circular hollow beams with lengths between 600 and 1000 mm are analyzed for beam radii varying between 50 and 70 mm and wall thicknesses between 1.2 and 1.6 mm. The model predictions are verified by numerical simulations and reasonable agreement is observed with respect to the characteristic displacements and deformed section shape. The energy partitioning during the deformation process is briefly discussed.     

Artificial Ground Freezing to excavate a tunnel in sandy soil. Measurements and back analysis

The paper is dedicated to the case history of a 13 m wide, 17 m high and 40 m long service tunnel at Toledo Station, previously constructed in a deep open shaft and belonging to the Line 1 of the Napoli underground network. The existing Line 1 has been recently extended with a new stretch consisting of five new stations connected by twin rail tunnels for a total length of about 5 km. Toledo Station main shaft is located by a side of the line and it is connected to the pedestrian platforms by the above mentioned large size service tunnel. The station is situated in the historical center of the city of Napoli, under a deeply urbanized area. In Fig. 1 a longitudinal section of the main shaft of the station and of the large service tunnel with the above and surrounding buildings is sketched. The focus of this paper is on the settlement caused by the tunnel excavation and on the use of the Artificial Ground Freezing (AGF) technique to allow the safe excavation of the large crown of the service tunnel, located about one half in a silty sand layer and one half in yellow tuff, well below the groundwater table.     

Bidirectional construction process mechanics for tunnels in dipping layered formation

The geological conditions surrounding the Tianpingshan Tunnel of the Gui-Guang railway in Guizhou Province are very complex. To study the mechanical regularity of the Tianpingshan Tunnel during construction process, a 3-D physical model was carried out based on the conditions of the section located between 372.335 km and 372.435 km (DK372 + 335 ∼ DK372 + 435) of the tunnel. The 3-D physical model was conducted to clarify the effect of the dipping formation and bidirectional excavation on the tunnel deformation. The results of the crown settlements, floor heave and radial displacement of the equivalent sections in the physical model were analyzed. In the physical model the results of the model test show that in the section located at 25 cm the crown settlements are much smaller than those in the section of 175 cm. And the floor heave in the section located at 25 cm is larger than that located at 175 cm. Furthermore, the radial displacement in horizontal direction is found to be much larger than that in vertical direction in the section located at 25 cm. However, the variation characteristics of radial displacement in the section located at 175 cm are reverse to that in the section located at 25 cm. The numerical study and the field measurements were compared with the model test to demonstrate the effectiveness and accuracy of the results of the numerical study.     

穿越软硬围岩隧道设置减震层振动台试验研究

以西部高烈度地震区浅埋公路隧道为依托,通过大型振动台模型试验,研究隧道穿越软硬围岩段在地震荷载作用下设置减震层的动力响应特性,并采用数值模拟方法对试验结果进行验证分析。试验及数值计算结果表明,从洞身段来看,减震层厚度存在最优值;从穿越软硬围岩段来看,增加减震层厚度可降低隧道沿纵向的动力响应差异,但加速度峰值会有所上升;拱顶围岩和隧道衬砌结构加速度响应频谱曲线均表现出“三峰值”现象,设置减震层并不会显著改变围岩频谱特性,衬砌结构也不显著体现自振特性,其响应主要取决所穿越围岩的动力特性;减震层处于最优值时可通过吸收更多的低频组分来降低隧道的动力响应;设置减震层可显著降低二衬动应力,但会使初支动应力呈现不同程度的放大,随减震层厚度的增加,二衬动应力先减小后增大,初支动应力先增大,后呈降低趋势;通过观察衬砌破坏形态,隧道拱顶、拱脚和仰拱易发生开裂,设置减震层后,仰拱相对容易发生破坏,应给予重点关注。研究成果可为西部高烈度地震区浅埋隧道抗震设计提供参考。     

衬砌背后空洞影响下隧道结构裂损规律试验研究

衬砌背后空洞的存在严重影响了围岩与衬砌之间的相互作用,极易引起衬砌结构破损并直接影响到运营安全。通过模型试验,系统研究了拱顶与拱肩背后存在双空洞条件下隧道结构裂损演化过程及衬砌结构轴力和弯矩的变化规律。模型试验结果表明:(1)衬砌背后双空洞的存在,严重影响隧道结构的受力状态,易导致衬砌结构承载力不足;(2)拱顶与右拱肩背后存在双空洞条件下衬砌裂缝出现的顺序为:仰拱内表面裂缝→空洞间衬砌内表面裂缝→拱肩空洞右侧衬砌外表面裂缝→拱顶空洞左侧衬砌内表面裂缝→左拱脚衬砌外表面裂缝→右拱腰衬砌外表面裂缝;(3)空洞尺寸变化显著改变了衬砌内力分布,空洞尺寸的增加,引起两空洞间衬砌结构轴力减小而弯矩增大,使两空洞间的衬砌结构破坏程度更严重;(4)衬砌背后空洞的位置及数量对隧道结构裂损过程有较大影响,衬砌背后存在双空洞时衬砌裂缝的传播过程更复杂。研究成果可为衬砌背后多空洞影响下衬砌裂缝病害的防治和修复提供参考。     

走滑断层错动下山岭隧道关键断面变形及损伤演化

山岭隧道受选线制约大多要穿越活动断裂带,而活动断裂带的运动会对与之相交的隧道结构的安全产生影响。为此,对穿越走滑断层的隧道在地震中所遭受的破坏展开调研具有现实意义。以滇中引水工程香炉山隧洞为背景,建立隧道-断层三维有限元分析模型,研究走滑断层错动下隧道关键断面的变形特征。基于所建立的有限元模型,采用相对位移法对断层错动量、断层破碎带宽度和穿越角度的影响进行参数分析。研究结果表明：穿越角度为45°时,截面的变形模式为水平椭圆,而穿越角度为135°时,截面的变形模式为直立椭圆;随着断层破碎带宽度的增加,位于断层中间位置处的隧道截面的变形程度减小;走滑断层错动下,隧道截面变形最为严重的区域出现在拱顶和拱底,在进行山岭隧道的设计时需要重点关注。     

Ceiling-jet thickness and vertical distribution along flat-ceilinged horizontal tunnel with natural ventilation

A series of fire tests was conducted in a 10.0 m (L) × 0.75 m (W) × 0.45 m (H) model tunnel with a rectangular cross section, and detailed measurements were taken of the temperature and velocity within a quasi-steady state fire-driven ceiling-jet running along the centre of a ceiling.The ceiling-jet thickness was defined as the distance from the tunnel ceiling to the point where the temperature and/or velocity dropped to half of their maximums. Correlations to represent the variation in the ceiling-jet thickness along the tunnel axis were developed with the aid of a theoretical approach. The coefficients included in these correlations were determined based on the experimental results obtained. It was found that the ceiling-jet thickness derived from the temperature was 1.17 times greater than that from the velocity in the tranquil flow region.In the tranquil region, both the velocity and temperature showed top-hat distributions, with a bulging shape from the apex of the distribution towards the tunnel floor. A cubic function and coordinate transformation were applied to develop empirical formulae for the temperature and velocity distributions, which were represented by the dimensionless distance from the tunnel ceiling and dimensionless temperature rise and/or velocity at a given distance from the fire source. The correlation developed for the temperature distribution was compared with the results of large- and full-scale tunnel experiments, which verified its applicability.     

Rational permeability coefficient of a permeable lining for composite tunnel lining structures

 Various factors influence the tunneling are simplified considering the axial symmetry of the composite lining structure. The analytical expressions for the seepage field,stress,and displacement in the surrounding rock and those for the grouting circle,permeable lining,and ordinary lining are obtained according to the principle of effective stress. The seepage discharge,plastic zone,stress,and displacement around a tunnel affected by the different permeability coefficient ratios between the permeable lining and surrounding rock are studied. The reasonable value of permeability coefficient for the permeable lining are discussed. The results show that the grouting circle controls the tunnel seepage discharge well and has a reasonable permeability coefficient and an optimal radius. The grouting circle controls the plastic zone development in the surrounding rock,i.e.,the thicker the grouting circle,the smaller the plastic zone in the surrounding rock. The tunnel seepage discharge and the effective stress in the grouting circle and lining increase gradually with the increasing of permeability coefficient ratio and tend to be stable after the ratio reaches 0.1. Comprehensive analysis on the factors such as the stability of tunnel seepage discharge,the plastic zone of the surrounding rock and the stress around the tunnel indicates that it is relatively reasonable for the permeability coefficient ratio to be greater than or equal to 0.1.     

基于荷载 - 结构法的黄土隧道结构静力计算分析

为了保障黄土隧道建设的安全性和牢固性,采用荷载-结构法对衬砌结构的安全系数进行验算,同时借助MIDAS/GTS岩土隧道结构专用有限元分析软件对隧道结构进行检算。结果表明,衬砌的最大水平变形发生在左右拱脚位置,最大竖向变形发生在拱顶处;拱顶、曲墙脚部和仰拱端部出现较大的拉应力,为受力的不利截面;常家湾隧道二衬厚度总体稳定性达到要求,安全系数符合规范。     

Failure mechanism of tunnel lining joints and bolts with uneven longitudinal ground settlement

To simulate the failure mechanism of tunnel segmental lining joints and longitudinal bolts under uneven longitudinal ground settlement, a numerical model with 3D lining rings and bolts was established. The loads were divided into two parts: the soil pressure around the tunnel just after construction and a displacement loading according to field measurements of uneven longitudinal ground settlement. The interactions between the lining tenons, bolts and their holes, were determined. The results indicated that the deformation of the circumferential joints consisted of opening and dislocation, but the dislocation was dominant. The progressive failure of bolts and waterproofing measures were also revealed. The evaluation of structural integrity of circumferential joint and the mitigate measures were proposed in order to ensure the operational safety of a metro tunnel.     

深圳地铁某区间隧道二衬结构数值模拟分析

以深圳地铁某区间隧道工程为例,运用大型有限元软件通过数值模拟的方式对隧道二衬结构进行了简单的力学分析,进而了解了地铁隧道复合式衬砌四心圆断面形式的基本受力特征,对类似隧道设计有一定指导作用。     

北京地铁运营隧道病害状态分析

基于北京地铁隧道病害检测结果,分析结构形式、配筋和运营时间对隧道病害状态的影响。研究结果表明,管片接缝变形是盾构隧道病害的根源,并由此引发了盾构断面的椭圆化变形、管片的压溃与错台以及盾构隧道的渗漏水。衬砌开裂是矿山法隧道的主要病害,裂缝宽度与深度受运营时间影响大且具有离散性强、随机性大的特点,配筋对隧道结构安全有积极影响。渗漏水受降水的影响较大,多出现于隧道衬砌结构的缝隙,如盾构隧道的接缝、螺栓孔或矿山法隧道的变形缝、施工缝和衬砌裂缝等。衬砌空洞多位于拱顶,形状接近于长条形、正方形和椭圆形,且多伴随着邻近衬砌的开裂。混凝土碳化深度与运营时间成正比,碳化深度和速率在隧道道床位置最大、边墙次之、拱顶最小。裂缝是整体式道床的常见病害,道床在剥离的同时还伴随沿其纵向的扭转。