Exploring students’ behaviors in a competition-driven educational game

Educational mini-games, one of the applications of game-based learning, have been widely used to benefit student learning. However, few studies have examined the influence of competition-driven educational games on students’ behaviors, which might offer insights into how to develop well-designed educational games. Thus, this study discusses a Pet-Master system, as an example of a competition-driven educational game, in an investigation of students’ behaviors through both event-based and time-based analysis. Two empirical studies were conducted using the two types of analysis. The results of the event-based analysis indicated that the behaviors can be categorized into two parts: competition-driven and learning cycles. Evidence from the time-based analysis showed that the two behavior cycles appeared in an alternating way with a lower transition frequency. Based on the results we develop a design framework for competition-driven educational games, which illustrates the relationship among the social, learning, and gameplay dimensions. The framework and its application might serve to optimize learning outcomes and influence the way games are designed in order to maximize educational benefits in the future.     

Assessing implicit science learning in digital games

Building on the promise shown in game-based learning research, this paper explores methods for Game-Based Learning Assessments (GBLA) using a variety of educational data mining techniques (EDM). GBLA research examines patterns of behaviors evident in game data logs for the measurement of implicit learning—the development of unarticulated knowledge that is not yet expressible on a test or formal assessment. This paper reports on the study of two digital games showing how the combination of human coding with EDM has enabled researchers to measure implicit learning of Physics. In the game Impulse, researchers combined human coding of video with educational data mining to create a set of automated detectors of students' implicit understanding of Newtonian mechanics. For Quantum Spectre, an optics puzzle game, human coding of Interaction Networks was used to identify common student errors. Findings show that several of our measures of student implicit learning within these games were significantly correlated with improvements in external postassessments. Methods and detailed findings were different for each type of game. These results suggest GBLA shows promise for future work such as adaptive games and in-class, data-driven formative assessments, but design of the assessment mechanics must be carefully crafted for each game.     

Assessing the educational values of digital games

Abstract   In recent years, digital games have assumed an important place in the lives of children and adolescents. Effective content design is crucial to the success of digital game-based learning. Therefore, the tool for assessing the effectiveness of game design is accordingly very important for parents and teachers, so that they may encourage or discourage students to play. The purpose of this study is to develop an assessment tool to examine the educational values of digital games. In the first phase of this research, the research team developed the indices for assessing the educational values of digital games. An expert panel consisting of game scholars and professional game designers was established to construct the indices for evaluating digital games in three focus group discussions. Seventy-four game evaluation indices were sorted into seven categories: mentality change, emotional fulfilment, knowledge enhancement, thinking skill development, interpersonal skill development, spatial ability development and bodily coordination. In the second phase of the research, the game designers were asked to assess certain games by using the 74 indices. Meanwhile, the game scholars were also asked to evaluate the same pool of games by the same indices. The assessments by both the scholars and designers were then compared and the similarities were found. This research provided a preliminary framework for future game designers, parents and teachers in assessing educational values of digital games.     

Using Cultural‐Historical Activity Theory to design and evaluate an educational game in science education

The aim of this paper is to describe a methodology for using Cultural‐Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) at the initial stages of the design process of an educational game, by exploring how the theory can be used as a framework for producing not only usable but also useful computer tools. The research also aimed to investigate how the theory could be used for designing computer tools for learning science. Although CHAT and specifically the concepts of ‘activity system’ and ‘contradictions’ were used as the basis for the design and development of the educational game, subsidiary design guidelines also contributed significantly to this process. These derived from the research fields of Human Computer Interaction and Science Education and from students' everyday experiences when playing video games at home. The educational game produced was concerned with the teaching and learning of ‘Expansion and Contraction of Air’ in primary science, a subject that existing research suggests is conceptually difficult for students. As far as the main outcomes of the study are concerned, it was revealed through the implementation of the game that contradictions could be adequately resolved, while stakeholders' needs and motives could be appropriately addressed.     

You like it,you learn it: affectivity and learning in competitive social role play gaming

Despite the alleged ability of digital game-based learning (DGBL) to foster positive affect and in turn improve learning, the link between affectivity and learning has not been sufficiently investigated in this field. Regarding learning from team-based games with competitive elements, even less is known about the relationship between competitiveness (as a dispositional trait) and induced positive affect. In this media comparison study with between-subject design, participants (N?=?325; high school and college students) learned about the EU’s policy agenda by means of a debate-based method delivered through one of three educational media: a) through a social role-playing game with competitive elements played on computers, b) through a very similar game played without computers and c) through a non-game workshop. Unlike many previous DGBL studies, this study used participant randomization and strived to address the teacher effect and the length of exposure effect, while also using the same learning materials and a very similar educational method for all three treatments. Both games induced comparatively higher generalized positive affect and flow. Participants also learned more with the games. Positive affect, but not flow, mediated the influence of educational media on learning gains. Participants’ competitiveness was partly related to positive affect and experiencing flow but unrelated to learning gains. These outcomes held both when the game was played using computers, as well as without them. The study indicates that the ability of an educational intervention to instigate positive affect is an important feature that should be considered by educational designers.     

Ubiquitous games for learning (UbiqGames): Weatherlings,a worked example

This paper provides a rationale for a class of mobile, casual, and educational games, which we call UbiqGames. The study is motivated by the desire to understand how students use educational games in light of additional distractions on their devices, and how game design can make those games appealing, educationally useful, and practical. In particular, we explain the choices made to build an engaging and educational first example of this line of games, namely Weatherlings. Further, we report results from a pilot study with 20 students that suggest that students are engaged by the game and are interested in learning more about academic content topics, specifically weather and climate, after playing the game. Research should continue to determine whether Weatherlings specifically does increase learning in these areas, and more generally to determine whether any learning gains and similar results with regard to engagement can be replicated in other content areas following the general model for game design.     

Student interactions in online discussion forums: their perception on learning with business simulation games

Digital technology offers new teaching methods with controversial results over learning. They allow students to develop a more active participation in their learning process although it does not always drive to unequivocal better learning outcomes. This study aims to offer additional evidence on the contribution of business simulation games to students’ learning outcomes, considering student interactions in online discussion forums. We conducted a qualitative research with the online discussion forums of 5 different courses at bachelor and master levels, which involves 41 students’ teams. The final sample was composed of 3681 messages posted by the students. The results reveal that some generic and specific managerial skills exert a positive influence on learning outcomes. Students mostly highlighted teamwork, decision-making, information processing, reaching agreements, and dealing with uncertainty as the most relevant contributions of the game towards their learning. These results have instructional and pedagogical implications for determining the best way to enhance students’ motivation and learning outcomes when using digital technology methods, which involves recommendations that affect their design and monitoring.     

Empowering students through digital game authorship: Enhancing concentration,critical thinking,and academic achievement

Digital game-based learning is a popular strategy for engaging students by making learning fun. Actively involving students as designers and producers of digital games may have even greater potential for student empowerment through enhancing concentration and engagement, fostering higher order thinking, and improving learning outcomes. Thus, this study empirically investigated the impact of digital game authoring on students' concentration, critical thinking skills, and academic achievement. A total of 67 students in two seventh-grade classes participated in this 19-week-long experiment, and were divided into an experimental group (32 students designing digital games) and a comparison group (35 students designing Flash animations). The interdisciplinary approach involved integrating biology and computer programming classes. Students in the experimental group designed digital games based upon biology course content, while the comparison group collaboratively produced Flash animations based upon the same course content. The experimental results, using MANCOVA for pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest scores, demonstrate significant improvements in critical thinking skills, and academic achievement, with increased retention of both course content and critical thinking skills observed for the delayed posttest. For concentration, a relative advantage for the experimental group as compared with the comparison group was noted, but did not reach statistical significance. Based on the results of this study, implications for practitioners and researchers are provided, including the integration of programming or computer science with other courses for digital game authoring and the evaluation of other learning outcomes such as creative thinking, problem-solving, and flow.     

Students’ perceptions about the use of video games in the classroom

Video games are often regarded as promising teaching and learning tools for the 21st century. One of the main arguments is that video games are appealing to contemporary students. However, there are indications that video game acceptance cannot be taken for granted. In this study, a path model to examine and predict student acceptance of video games is proposed, and empirically tested by involving 858 secondary school students. The results show that students’ preference for using video games in the classroom is affected directly by a number of factors: the perceptions of students regarding the usefulness, ease of use, learning opportunities, and personal experience with video games in general. Gender effects are found as well, but appear to be mediated by experience and ease of use.     

“Critic-proofing” of the cognitive aspects of simple games

This paper posits the use of computer games as cognitive development tools that can provide players with transferable skills suitable for learning in the 21st century. We describe a method for categorizing single-player computer games according to the main cognitive function(s) engaged in by the player during gaming. Categorization was done in collaboration with a neuropsychologist, academic researchers, and research assistants. Twelve research assistants, mostly domain novices, were trained to categorize games according to a cognitive matrix developed by the neuropsychologist. They also categorized the games, and evaluated and commented on the relevance of the neuropsychologist's categorization of the games. Through the process of “critic proofing,” computer games were reliably classified into primary and secondary cognitive categories, and the team was able to identify problems with both the categorization of certain games and the definitions of some of the cognitive functions in our cognitive matrix. Such an approach allowed for the identification of under-populated cognitive categories in the project's existing repository of games, and for further development of the cognitive representation framework, information useful for both researchers and designers in the gaming industry.     

Effects of Interactivity in Educational Games: A Mediating Role of Social Presence on Learning Outcomes

Networked interactivity is one of the essential factors that differentiate recent online educational games from traditional stand-alone CD-based games. Despite the growing popularity of online educational games, empirical studies about the effects of networked interactivity are relatively rare. The current study tests the effects of networked interactivity on game users' learning outcomes by comparing three groups (online educational quiz game vs. off-line educational quiz game vs. traditional classroom lecture). In addition, the study examines the mediating role of social presence in the context of educational games. Results indicate that networked interactivity in the online educational quiz game condition enhances game users' positive evaluation of learning, test performance, and feelings of social presence. However, there was no significant difference between the off-line educational quiz game and the lecture-based conditions in terms of learning outcomes. Further analyses indicate that feelings of social presence mediate the effect of networked interactivity on various learning outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The effectiveness of adaptive difficulty adjustments on students' motivation and learning in an educational computer game

Computer games that adaptively adjust difficulty are used to continuously challenge players according to their abilities. The adjustment of difficulty occurs automatically in response to a game's ongoing assessment of a player's performance. This approach to difficulty adjustment is likely to be of value in educational computer games as a means of scaffolding learning for students. However, there is limited research evaluating the effectiveness of educational computer games with adaptive difficulty adjustment when compared to non-adaptive difficulty adjustment. To expand on this research a quasi-experimental study was designed to isolate the impact of the difficulty adjustment game element on motivation and learning. A total of 234 secondary school students were allocated to one of three activities involving learning about Spanish cognates: an adaptive difficulty adjustment game, an incremental difficulty adjustment game that was non-adaptive, and a written activity. The three learning activities were designed following the same learning and motivation theories. The two games were identical apart from the difficulty adjustment mechanism. The results for motivation indicated that all students experienced high levels and there was no significant difference between the three learning activities. The pre- and post-tests results for learning indicated that significantly higher learning outcomes were achieved by students who played the adaptive game. Analysis of a game log recording the correctness of students' responses indicated that the adaptive difficulty adjustment game, in contrast to the non-adaptive incremental difficulty adjustment game, provided a scaffolding structure to enhance student learning.     

Comparing the retention and flow experience in playing Solitary and Heart Attack games of San Zi Jing: A perspective of Dual Process Theory

Most educational games require high speed process; they require fast recognitions and accurate hand-eye coordination to play. Under this constraint, Dual Process theory (DPT) indicated players have different levels of cognitive process over different games which affect their mood. Csikszentmihalyi highlighted that a flow experience is the essential psychological effect on mood and cognitive process. According to DPT, how students engage in different game design will affect their learning retention effects. The flow experiences were examined in this study in relation to Solitary and Heart Attack games of San Zi Jing (a Chinese educational poem). The present study was implemented with a sample of 209 5th and 6th grade elementary school students. The students were assigned with one of the games randomly. The results indicated that in terms of flow experiences, Heart Attack group was significantly higher than that of the Solitary group; secondly, solitary game showed a better retention rate than Heart Attack game did after one month; even though the retention rate of both type games have slight loose after one month. The results of this study suggest if the game design emphasizes on learning retention, solitary game is recommended for higher grade students. Whereas, game design for hedonic values, then Heart Attack type is recommended. Future studies may focus on additional contents and establish more trials to examine the effects of flow experiences and engagement effects.     

Implementing digital game-based learning in schools: augmented learning environment of ‘Europe 2045’

It is widely agreed that the traditional process of schooling can benefit from the usage of computers as supportive tools. Of various approaches using computers in education over the last decade, e-learning and edutainment have become the most prominent. Recently, a number of authors have criticised these approaches arguing that they conserve traditional ‘drill and practice’ behaviouristic methods of teaching instead of enhancing and augmenting them. It has been proposed that a ‘paradigm shift’ is needed and that this shift may come through utilizing all the advantages of full-fledged video games, so-called digital game-based learning (DGBL). However, several case studies reported serious problems with the DGBL. Among the most notable issues are the lack of acceptance of games as an educational tool, problems with integration of games into formal schooling environments, and the so-called transfer problem, which is the problem of the inherent tension between game play and learning objectives, the tension that mitigates the ability of students to transfer knowledge gained in the video game to the real-world context. Here, we present a framework for an augmented learning environment (ALE), which verbalises one way of how these problems can be challenged. The ALE framework has been constructed based on our experience with the educational game, Europe 2045, which we developed and which has been implemented in a number of secondary schools in the Czech Republic during 2008. The key feature of this game is that it combines principles of on-line multi-player computer games with social, role-playing games. The evaluation which we present in this paper indicates the successful integration of the game and its acceptance by teachers and students. The ALE framework isolates key principles of the game contributing to this success, abstracts them into theoretical entities we call action-based spaces and causal and grounding links, and condenses them in a coherent methodological structure, which paves the way for further exploitation of the DGBL by educational game researchers and designers.     

Problem-solving processes in an educational construction simulation game

The growing adoption of educational simulation games in construction pedagogy has significantly impacted student learning. One game, the Virtual Construction Simulator 4 (VCS4), has been found to support student learning of how to solve complex construction problems. However, further research is warranted to evaluate the thinking processes that students engage while playing the game. This study examines those thinking processes by analyzing verbal protocols collected as students thought aloud while playing VCS4 game modules and resulting verbal protocols were coded to capture both cognitive and metacognitive operations. Patterns of thought revealed by this coding were then compared to the patterns expected based on the intentions of game design. The results show that students do generally exhibit the expected patterns. These findings support the claim that students engaged in complex higher-order thinking processes and skills, which evolved based on the types of construction projects.     

Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement,flow and immersion in game-based learning

In this paper, we investigate the impact of flow (operationalized as heightened challenge and skill), engagement, and immersion on learning in game-based learning environments. The data was gathered through a survey from players (N = 173) of two learning games (Quantum Spectre: N = 134 and Spumone: N = 40). The results show that engagement in the game has a clear positive effect on learning, however, we did not find a significant effect between immersion in the game and learning. Challenge of the game had a positive effect on learning both directly and via the increased engagement. Being skilled in the game did not affect learning directly but by increasing engagement in the game. Both the challenge of the game and being skilled in the game had a positive effect on both being engaged and immersed in the game. The challenge in the game was an especially strong predictor of learning outcomes. For the design of educational games, the results suggest that the challenge of the game should be able to keep up with the learners growing abilities and learning in order to endorse continued learning in game-based learning environments.     

The effect of competences on learning results an educational experience with a business simulator

Business games constitute a relevant e-learning method in management training. Their use and application has grown progressively, especially in business schools, universities and professional associations all over the world. The main reason for their popularity is that business games are seen as learning tools that allow students to acquire certain skills and competences above and beyond the skills fostered by other online or face-to-face methodologies. This study aims to analyse the relationship between generic competences and the learning results perceived by students in a business game. Analysis of the skills acquired using business simulators provides a wide field for potential future experimentation. The design of education plans is based entirely on the developing these skills. This study helps identify and assess which competencies are most linked to achieving the best learning outcomes, based on the value that students place on them, their satisfaction with them and their expectations of them. Only 16 of the 23 generic skills have a significant impact on achieving any of the objectives of the study variables.     

Designing educational software with students through collaborative design games: The We!Design&Play framework

In this paper, we present a framework for the development of collaborative design games that can be employed in participatory design sessions with students for the design of educational applications. The framework is inspired by idea generation theory and the design games literature, and guides the development of board games which, through the use of adequate stimuli, rules and props, facilitate students in extracting and expressing their needs, desires and prospects regarding future educational software. To evaluate the proposed framework three studies were conducted. The first study aimed at the design of a web learning platform with the participation of 62 undergraduate higher education students in 13 design sessions; in the second study, a structured design approach was employed (12 sessions, 54 students) with the same design objective for comparison reasons; in the third study, the framework was deployed for the design of an electronic assessment application so as to examine its applicability in different learning domains (8 design sessions, 28 students). Students were very positive regarding both their participation and experience with the design games, and the needs elicited. The games favored a quick, broad exploration of the design space and facilitated the elicitation of numerous diverse needs and ideas, almost twice as many as produced by the structured approach. They also facilitated the creation of an informal atmosphere and limited the effects of common social influences on idea generation, such as social loafing, evaluation apprehension and production blocking. The three studies indicated that the proposed framework may simplify the development and employment of effective and efficient participatory design sessions in educational settings.     

Multiplayer online games as educational tools: Facing new challenges in learning

This paper outlines a proposal for the development of educational multiplayer online games based on the activity theory, as an alternative to the current trend in multiplayer gaming and a means of promoting collaboration among students. In order to examine whether online games are engaging for learners, we consider multiple factors regarding game play – such as frequency of game use, gender differences, identification with the characters, and game preferences – as well as some psychosocial factors that may influence learning – such as academic performance, self-esteem, and computer self-efficacy. This paper suggests that online multiplayer educational games should be approached as a complex learning system, based on the principles of activity theory, where the Subjects would interact with other Subjects, Objects and Tools of the game, under specified Rules and create Communities through division of labor, leading to the expected learning outcome. Thus, we suggest taking into account some important issues concerning the Subjects that the activity theory refers to, such as gender differences in playing games, academic performance, self-esteem and computer self-efficacy.