Tunnelling through a frequently changing and mixed ground: A case history in Singapore

The Kranji tunnel is part of the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System in Singapore. It is approximately 12.6 km in length. Along the tunnel alignment, all the ground is composed of granite with different weathering grades (from fresh rock to residual soil). The changing ground from hard rock to mixed face and soft ground (and vice versa) at the tunnel level was anticipated. The tunnel depth along the route is between 15 m and 50 m. Two EPB TBMs were deployed at this tunnel with a bored diameter 4.90 m. These machines were designed so that both hard rock and soft ground could be excavated. The cutter head was equipped with a combination of both rippers and disc cutters. During the excavation, it was found that the frequency of the ground change between hard rock and residual soil is much higher than that expected. Due to the frequently changing ground, correspondingly the tunnel boring machine (TBM) operation mode had to be transferred frequently from hard rock tunnelling to transition mode and to earth pressure balance (EPB) close mode. It resulted in great difficulties for the TBM in an optimized operation condition. These difficulties included high cutter wear and flat cutters, tunnel face instability, water inflow at weathering interface, and time delays. In order to overcome these problems and speed up the tunnelling progress, the TBM used in the north drive was modified to attempt the frequently changing ground. The performance of the modified TBM was highly improved. However, the highly abrasive and frequently changing mixed face ground still caused high cutter wear, especially flat cutter wear. These posed many challenges to the equipment and the tunnel crew.     

Thrust and torque components on mixed-face EPB drives

In this communication we propose a method to estimate net thrust and torque applied at the excavation front by cutting tools from EPB machines when they are working in mixed faces constituted by soils and soft rock. The method is inspired by similar simplifications used for the analysis of TBM drives in rock. The proposal is validated using a database of EPB registers which were gathered from more than 35 km of tunnel drives excavated in soils, soft rock and heterogeneous media. The results allow us to assess the influence of the type of ground excavated and its geotechnical properties on the net thrust and torque applied.     

Earth pressure balance tunnelling in rock masses: Laboratory feasibility study of the conditioning process

Earth pressure balance (EPB) shield tunnelling is considered to be an effective tunnelling method when surface settlements must be avoided by controlling face stability and underground water inflow. EPB technology is applied increasingly to the conditioning of rock masses in which the presence of polluting material is foreseen and must be controlled, or when explosive gases from the rock mass must be prevented from entering in the machine. The use of an EPB machine in ‘closed mode’ can prevent the dispersion of dangerous materials in the underground environment. This study was performed to evaluate the feasibility of using EPB technology in rock masses and the effectiveness of this tunnelling process in terms of soil conditioning, conditioned soil permeability, pressure transmission on the tunnel face, and the ability to extract the material with a screw conveyor. The research was developed with a set of laboratory tests carried out on three different types of rock masses where tunnelling with EPB machines are planned to be constructed in Italy but the results can be easily applied to similar rock mass types. The tests have been carried out both with slump tests and with a specially constructed screw conveyor extraction device. In the paper the most important results are presented and discussed.     

Examining the influence of TBM-ground interaction on electrical resistivity imaging ahead of the TBM

Tunnel excavation by means of tunnel boring machines (TBMs) is susceptible to unknown changes ahead of the tunnel face. Geophysics offers a technique called electrical resistivity that can continuously, in real-time, spatially map the formation in front of the TBM. Electrical resistivity has been successfully established for many applications including vadoze zone hydrology, oil/gas location, mineral location and failure detection in geo-structures. Yet it has not been well-established for TBM excavations. This is in part due to the complexity of the TBM tunneling environment and the uncertain influence this environment may have on the success of TBM-integrated-electrical resistivity to predict changes ahead of the tunnel face. One significant uncertainty lies in the interface region that exists around the TBM created during the modification of the virgin formation by a mechanical mixing action of the rotating cutterhead and the injection of additives used to aid in the extraction of the muck and protect the cutting tools from frictional wear. In this study, we investigate the influence of this interface region on TBM-integrated-electrical resistivity for both hard rock and soft ground tunneling conditions through finite element modeling. Regarding the performance of TBM-integrated-electrical resistivity to detect changes ahead of the cutting face, the interface region holds significant influence for both earth pressure balance (EPB) and open mode tunneling conditions. Electrical resistivity for slurry based tunneling is not influenced by the interface region. Simulations suggest that TBM-integrated-electrical resistivity can be sensitive to a formation change that is located up to five diameters in front of the TBM.     

Case studies of TBM tunneling performance in rock–soil interface mixed ground

This paper investigates the performance of tunnel boring machines (TBMs) in rock–soil mixed-face ground based on TBM tunneling projects in Singapore. Currently several methods are available to estimate TBM tunneling performance in homogenous rock or soil. However, the existing models cannot be effectively applied to predict TBM penetration rate in mixed ground. The tunnels in this study were excavated in adverse mixed-face ground conditions. The geological profiles and the TBM operational parameters are compiled and analyzed. The influence of different geological face compositions on the performance of the TBMs is studied. The statistical analysis shows that there is a possible correlation between the mixed-face ground characteristics and the TBM advancement. Different approaches are used to find a reliable model. Finally, a method is proposed to predict the TBM performance in mixed-face ground for project planning and optimization.     

Three-dimensional numerical modelling for TBM tunnelling in consolidated clay

This paper presents a new field to analyze three-dimensional (3-D) coupled linear flow for Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) tunnelling in saturated porous medium. This is important to control ground deformation and excess pore water pressure due to the process of shield tunnelling in three-dimension and time-dependent. A numerical model to simulate explicitly the behaviour of excess pore water pressure mobilization and its dissipation in time is presented. For the TBM tunnelling techniques, the positive pressure is applied to support the tunnel face and the grouting material is injected to decrease the deformation into the tail void gap behind the shield. Hence, this study is employed on 3-D model to investigate the impact of the most important parameters, which are slurry pressure and grouting pressure. The governing equations are derived in the light of the generalized Biot theory where displacement and excess pore pressure are the primary unknowns. The excavation stages during the advance of the machine in 3-D consolidation analysis is simulated. An isoparametric quadratic solid consolidation elastic soil model is used for this analysis. Results of this study indicate that a realistic modelling of soil behaviour, especially the distribution shape of the excess pore water pressure around the TBM tunnels during the construction stages and its dissipation during the consolidation time can be assessed. Thus, short-term as well as long-term effects of the TBM tunnelling are predicted. The practical importance of this analysis is the optimization of values and quantities of the slurry pressure and grouting pressure required for TBM technology. A design criterion based on this study can be suggested to tunnelling procedure in consolidated clay.     

Probing ahead of TBMs by geophysical means

The potential of geophysical probing methods in TBM tunnelling is discussed. Modern TBMs have made it possible to tunnel through a wide range of geological conditions. However, the development towards more complicated machines has raised prices and often causes delays before the machines can begin operating properly. If a reliable system were available, the machine could be given a simpler design and the tunnelling process could be continuously adjusted to the prevailing ground conditions without jeopardizing safety. Geophysical investigation methods such as seismics and radar now offer the possibility of monitoring ground conditions ahead of the tunnel face. An analysis of a number of TBM projects has shown that if certain requirements on the range and time of the investigations are fulfilled, probing can be integrated into the tunnelling cycle.     

Evaluating D&B and TBM tunnelling using NTNU prediction models

Drill and Blast (D&B) and Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) are the two dominating excavation methods in hard rock tunnelling. Selection of the cost effective excavation method for a tunnel is a function of tunnel cross section area, rock conditions, tunnel length, availability of skilled labour and proper equipment, and project schedule. Over the past few decades, major technological development and technical advances have been achieved in both methods. Yet, in many tunnelling projects, choosing the excavation method is still a challenge and requires considering pros and cons of each method and estimating construction time, costs, as well as post construction and operation & maintenance, and related risk in the planning phase. In this study, the productivity and efficiency of the D&B and TBM options for excavating certain size tunnels have been examined. The analysis is based on recent NTNU prediction models for advance rate and unit excavation cost for given ground conditions and tunnel geometry. For excavation of large size tunnels in very hard rock, the D&B method seems to be the cost effective choice irrespective to tunnel geometry. This is compared to smaller long tunnels with good boreability were the TBM has higher advance rate. The tunnel size and rock conditions have higher impact on the TBM performance and costs than for D&B. This refers to lower risk of using D&B where the use of this method is otherwise justified.     

Geotechnical risk assessment based approach for rock TBM selection in difficult ground conditions

There are many potential sources of geotechnical risk in mechanized rock tunnelling. Problems such as encountering fault zones with running and water bearing gouge, tunnel walls instabilities in running or blocky grounds, hard and abrasive rock sections and convergent tunnel sections are principal causes in geotechnical risk occurrence. On the other hand, the performance of each TBM encountering such conditions will be different. Therefore, using different TBMs will have variable risk levels. This paper is to discuss rock TBM selection based on geotechnical risk minimization. So, a new approach was proposed based on decision analysis using decision tree. Based on the newly proposed approach, the most appropriate TBM is one that has the minimum risk level either before or after hazards mitigation measures. To be able to check the performance of this approach in practice, selection of machine for Nosoud water transfer tunnel has been evaluated. A shielded TBM (either single or double shield one) was proposed for the tunnel based on the newly proposed method. However, a double shield TBM was selected because of its more flexibility in difficult ground conditions in comparison with single shield TBM and limitation of project construction duration. The machine performance during tunnelling period verifies the success of excavation using selected TBM.     

An appraisal of TBM performances in Turkey in difficult ground conditions and some recommendations

The geology of Turkey is very complex and major Northern and Eastern Faults including minor faults associated to these faults create tremendous problems, like squeezing of the TBM, excessive water ingress, TBM face collapses, as encountered in the Kargi power tunnel, the Dogancay energy tunnel, the Gerede water tunnel, and the Nur Dagi railway tunnel. Mixed ground conditions with ophiolites, graphitic schists and melanges with boulders are other fundamental difficulties leading to squeezing and blocking of the TBMs or even causing complete failures of the segments and abandoning of the tunnel. A typical example for tunnel abandoning is the Kosekoy high speed tunnel and an example for excessive TBM squeezing is the Uluabat energy tunnel. The affects of dykes in the Istanbul region is known well by practicing tunnel engineers. These andesitic rocks, make fractures in the country rock and cause several problems during TBM excavation like blocking the cutterhead and excessive disc cutter consumption. Typical examples are the Goztepe-Kadıkoy Metro tunnels, and the Melen water tunnel. The Beykoz utility tunnel is one of the most difficult tunnelling projects in Istanbul. Presence of clay minerals existing within the geologic formations is also one of the main reasons clogging the cutterhead of TBM as encountered in the Suruc water project. The effects of complex geology on the excavation efficiencies of different type of TBM’s used in the ten projects mentioned above are explained in this paper and some recommendations with a ground classification system for proper use of TBMs in faultyzones are given.     

The face stability of slurry-shield-driven tunnels

During the excavation of a tunnel through soft water-bearing ground, a temporary support is often required to maintain the stability of the working face. In a slurry shield, this support is provided by a pressurized mixture of bentonite and water. Slurry-shield tunnelling has been applied successfully worldwide in recent years. Under extremely unfavorable geological conditions, however, face instabilities may occur. This paper aims at a better understanding of the mechanics of face failure when using a bentonite slurry support. The complex interrelations between the various parameters (shear strength and ground permeability, suspension parameters, slurry pressure, geometric data of the tunnel, safety factor) are studied. Attention is paid to the time-dependent effects associated with the gradual infiltration of slurry into the ground ahead of the tunnel. Related topics, such as the stand-up time, soil properties and the effect of advance rate, are discussed quantitatively.     

土压平衡盾构掘进对上软下硬地层扰动研究

 采用Ф800 mm模型盾构开展室内掘进试验以研究土压盾构掘进对上软下硬地层的扰动特征,试验充分考虑土压盾构动态施工全过程的影响。建立与室内掘进试验对应的离散元模型定量分析软土超挖现象并挖掘其他地层扰动信息。研究结果表明：土压盾构在硬岩地层中掘进时地表沉降曲面呈现向软土侧展开的“扇面”状;进入上软下硬地层后地表沉降值与范围均急剧增加,沉降曲面呈现自上而下逐渐收缩的“漏斗”状,硬岩侧收缩速度快于软土侧;上软下硬地层地表位移小于均质软土地层,而地中沉降显著大于后者;上软下硬地层地中沉降槽宽度参数沿深度方向呈指数增加,硬岩占断面比例越小,地中沉降槽宽度参数越大。相同埋深条件下,上软下硬地层地中沉降槽宽度参数小于均质软土地层。硬岩占断面比例越大,渣土中砂土所占比例与相应理论值差异越明显。地表水平位移在竖向沉降槽曲线反弯点处最大。研究可为土压盾构在上软下硬地层施工提供参考。     

砂土地层盾构隧道施工对地层扰动的室内掘进试验研究

土压平衡式盾构机在穿越流塑性差、渗透系数大的砂土地层时容易对隧道周围土体产生扰动,导致地表沉降不易控制和作用在衬砌结构上的土压力发生改变。针对地铁盾构隧道穿越砂土地层引起的地层扰动,采用一种能完全反映盾构隧道动态施工全过程的分析方法尤为重要。以城市地铁盾构区间隧道施工采用的土压平衡式盾构机为原型,研制 800 mm土压平衡式模型盾构机,该机主要包括推进机构、掘削机构和出土机构,能实现盾构始发、刀盘切削、螺旋出土、管片拼装等主要功能,以此开展砂土地层中盾构施工的室内掘进试验。试验过程中对盾构掘进引起的地层沉降及衬砌结构上的土压力进行量测,分析地层沉降形态和衬砌结构上土压力的分布形态,同时将试验结果同理论计算、数值分析及现场资料进行对比。研究结果表明,土体性状和盾尾注浆对地层沉降具有重要影响,地层损失是地层发生沉降的主要原因。未注浆情况下盾尾脱环引起的地表沉降值占总沉降值的60%以上,且由于未注浆而增大的地表沉降所占比例为20%～30%,沉降时程曲线具有阶段性和时效性。地表沉降槽宽度系数i与现场测试数据具有一致性。衬砌结构上的土压力分布类似于上下端为长半轴、左右端为短半轴的椭圆形,数值上试验实测值较理论计算值要小。     

Soil nailing at the tunnel face in difficult conditions: A case study

In presence of difficult conditions in tunnelling, an adequate stabilization of the excavation boundary and face is required to ensure a safe progress of the construction. The stabilization of the tunnel face can be improved by fibreglass soil nailing, offering properties optimal to the purpose and versatility in use. This paper reports a tunnelling experience where difficult conditions, induced by poor mechanical properties of the rock mass and relevant pore water pressures, were faced adopting innovative soil nailing techniques. Some details about the site geological conditions allow to recognize the causes of the difficult conditions which drove towards specific choices about the features of soil nails, acting on both aspects of mechanical reinforcement and drainage. The soil nail mechanical contribution to the tunnel face stabilization is taken into account at the design stage by an equivalent increase of effective cohesion in the improved ground mass. The tunnel face stability is then assessed by analytical approach. The performance and the specific advantages of the innovative technique are discussed also on the basis of results from on site testing.     

On the influence of face pressure, grouting pressure and TBM design in soft ground tunnelling

A three-dimensional finite element simulation model, which includes all relevant shield tunnelling components and allows for the modelling of the step-by-step construction process of the tunnel advance is used to analyse the influence of TBM operation parameters and design parameters for a shallow tunnel advance in homogeneous, soft, cohesive soil below the ground water table. The numerical sensitivity studies presented in this paper focus on the face support pressure, the grouting pressure, the trailer weight and the length, weight and taper of the shield machine. The simulation results are evaluated with respect to the settlements of the ground surface, the shield movement and the loading of the tunnel lining. The evaluation of the sensitivity analyses helps to obtain a more detailed insight into the influence of selected parameters relevant for the design and steering of TBM tunnel advances.     

Machine tunnelling in the twenty-first century

In the coming decades, versatile machines will be developed that will be capable of boring through both hard rock and wet soil conditions. These machines will be able to pass from hard rock through a water-filled fault zone and in a soil tunnel under a river: they will make the transition with ease into a mixed face of rock and boulders. Machines will incorporate state-of-the-art electronics that will give the operator the information needed to maintain a high level of availability and utilization. This will be an important factor in reducing machine tunnelling costs. The new materials that will be used to build cutters will increase cutter life while reducing costs of tunnelling in the hardest rocks. New types of machines will cut non-circular tunnels in hard rock, providing highway and railroad builders the advantage of high-speed machine tunnelling. There will remain for the twenty-first century unlimited opportunities for development to solve difficult tunnelling problems such as undersea tunnels in weak rock conditions. If tunnel owners and builders utilize the resources of the machine developers effectively, technology will be developed rapidly and will dramatically reduce the cost of underground construction.     

Kinematic behaviour of a Tunnel Boring Machine in soft soil: Theory and observations

State-of-the-art shield tunnelling in difficult ground conditions still involves a trial-and-error approach as a complete understanding of the physics governing the interaction between the Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)-shield and the surrounding soil is still lacking. This is particularly concerning as it was demonstrated that the shield–soil interaction, and especially the ground displacement around the shield periphery, gives a significant contribution to the overall soil deformation. This paper quantifies the radial soil displacements induced by a TBM-shield driving in soft ground. The displacements have been obtained by means of a model that captures several aspects of the kinematic behaviour of a TBM, based on theoretical and geometrical considerations. The theoretical model has been verified against TBM monitoring data obtained during the construction of the Hubertus Tunnel, a double-tube road tunnel located in The Hague, The Netherlands. Results show the amplitude and spatial distribution of the ground displacement around the shield periphery as they occurred in practice.     

The impact of shallow cover on stability when tunnelling in soft soils

Reducing the cover of shallow (metro) tunnels can lower construction costs by lowering cost of the station boxes, increase safety and lower operational cost in the long-term. For bored tunnels there are normally minimal depth requirements stemming from design and construction. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects of the cover-to-diameter ratio C/D to the stability of tunnelling process. Several models to analyse the tunnel stability were investigated and were applied for a case study in a typical Dutch soil profile with soft Holocene soil layers. The range of the support pressures in TBM machines, especially in EPB, when tunnelling in soft soil is derived for varied C/D ratio in different soil conditions. Based on the analysis results, some designing optimizations are proposed for shallow tunnels in soft soil.     

复杂隧道围岩安全性及其评价方法

 在对国内外现行隧道围岩分级方法分析的基础上,指出了其在隧道工程设计和安全性控制,尤其是复杂围岩控制设计方面存在的突出问题,认为现行的隧道围岩分级概念模糊,难以适应复杂多变的地层条件和较为严苛的环境控制要求,尤其是对稳定性较差的复杂围岩条件缺乏有效的指导作用。从隧道围岩控制的宗旨出发,提出了隧道围岩及其支护系统安全性的概念,明确了其科学内涵和表征方法;重点对于不具备自稳能力的复杂围岩安全性进行了研究,建立了隧道围岩安全性的分析模型,提出了隧道围岩安全性分析中应考虑围岩预加固效果的必要性及其评价方法;基于隧道围岩尺度效应和地层结构效应(时间效应)的分析,建立了围岩尺度响应的表述方法,同时从细观结构层面分析了不同地层结构形式对安全性的影响关系;结合“支护–围岩”动态作用关系的分析,建立了极不稳定地层条件下复杂隧道围岩安全性的评价指标体系,将围岩超前变形、超前破坏和地层加固有效性作为核心评价指标,形成了包括9项基础指标的评价体系,并提出了安全性的分级方法。最后介绍了隧道围岩安全性的分级方案的工程应用。