Principles for the risk assessment of genetically modified microorganisms and their food products in the European Union

Genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs) are involved in the production of a variety of food and feed. The release and consumption of these products can raise questions about health and environmental safety. Therefore, the European Union has different legislative instruments in place in order to ensure the safety of such products. A key requirement is to conduct a scientific risk assessment as a prerequisite for the product to be placed on the market. This risk assessment is performed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), through its Scientific Panels. The EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms has published complete and comprehensive guidance for the risk assessment of GMMs and their products for food and/or feed use, in which the strategy and the criteria to conduct the assessment are explained, as well as the scientific data to be provided in applications for regulated products. This Guidance follows the main risk assessment principles developed by various international organisations ( and ). The assessment considers two aspects: the characterisation of the GMM and the possible effects of its modification with respect to safety, and the safety of the product itself. Due to the existing diversity of GMMs and their products, a categorisation is recommended to optimise the assessment and to determine the extent of the required data. The assessment starts with a comprehensive characterisation of the GMM, covering the recipient/parental organism, the donor(s) of the genetic material, the genetic modification, and the final GMM and its phenotype. Evaluation of the composition, potential toxicity and/or allergenicity, nutritional value and environmental impact of the product constitute further cornerstones of the process. The outcome of the assessment is reflected in a scientific opinion which indicates whether the product raises any safety issues. This opinion is taken into account by the different European regulatory authorities prior to a decision regarding authorisation to commercialise the product.     

Overview of present and past and pest-associated risks in stored food and feed products: European perspective

This review provides an account on the published information regarding the historical development of pest status and risk of stored product pest monitoring in Europe over the past 80 years. Additionally, it documents several risks that have been recently identified such as (i) the arthropod filth contamination of flour; (ii) infestation of the locally produced hams and cheeses; (iii) infestation of pet food; (iv) European north-south geographical shift of pasta infestation by Sitophilus oryzae and dried fruits by Carpoglyphus lactis; (v) outdoor pest refugees; (vi) unattended rodent baits as sources of infestation. Although the reviewed literature identified an increasing mites and psocids as a threat, the quantitative data enabling a statistically-robust evaluation of population trends are missing in most of the European countries. Using several recent examples this review demonstrates the fragmented and methodically non-uniform published information on stored products pests' surveillance in Europe. Additionally, this review highlights the discrepancies between EU and USA in trade food and agricultural commodity quality/safety parameters demonstrated by missing thresholds for arthropod filth fragments in stored food in Europe.     

Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector

A review of current and projected nanotechnology-derived food ingredients, food additives and food contact materials is presented in relation to potential implications for consumer safety and regulatory controls. Nanotechnology applications are expected to bring a range of benefits to the food sector, including new tastes, textures and sensations, less use of fat, enhanced absorption of nutrients, improved packaging, traceability and security of food products. The review has shown that nanotechnology-derived food and health food products are set to grow worldwide and, moreover, a variety of food ingredients, additives, carriers for nutrients/supplements and food contact materials is already available in some countries. The current level of applications in the European food sector is at an elementary stage; however, it is widely expected that more and more products will be available in the EU over the coming years. The toxicological nature of hazard, likelihood of exposure and risk to consumers from nanotechnology-derived food/food packaging are largely unknown and this review highlights major gaps in knowledge that require further research. A number of uncertainties and gaps in relevant regulatory frameworks have also been identified and ways of addressing them proposed.     

Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector

A review of current and projected nanotechnology-derived food ingredients, food additives and food contact materials is presented in relation to potential implications for consumer safety and regulatory controls. Nanotechnology applications are expected to bring a range of benefits to the food sector, including new tastes, textures and sensations, less use of fat, enhanced absorption of nutrients, improved packaging, traceability and security of food products. The review has shown that nanotechnology-derived food and health food products are set to grow worldwide and, moreover, a variety of food ingredients, additives, carriers for nutrients/supplements and food contact materials is already available in some countries. The current level of applications in the European food sector is at an elementary stage; however, it is widely expected that more and more products will be available in the EU over the coming years. The toxicological nature of hazard, likelihood of exposure and risk to consumers from nanotechnology-derived food/food packaging are largely unknown and this review highlights major gaps in knowledge that require further research. A number of uncertainties and gaps in relevant regulatory frameworks have also been identified and ways of addressing them proposed.     

Microbiological food safety assessment of high hydrostatic pressure processing: A review

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing as a novel non-thermal method has shown great potential in producing microbiologically safer products while maintaining the natural characteristics of the food items. Scientific research of the process and its industrial applications has been widespread in the past two decades with many scientific publications describing its uses, advantages and limitations. The review describes the effect of HHP on foodborne pathogenic microorganisms, their structures and adaptive mechanisms, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect its application with a focus on microbiological safety, and research needs. In a risk assessment context, tools and mechanisms in place to monitorize, optimize and validate the process, and procedures for assessing and modelling the lethal effect of the treatment are reviewed.     

Alkaloids in the human food chain--natural occurrence and possible adverse effects

Alkaloid-containing plants are an intrinsic part of the regular Western diet. The present paper summarizes the occurrence of alkaloids in the food chain, their mode of action and possible adverse effects including a safety assessment. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are a reason for concern because of their bioactivation to reactive alkylating intermediates. Several quinolizidine alkaloids, β-carboline alkaloids, ergot alkaloids and steroid alkaloids are active without bioactivation and mostly act as neurotoxins. Regulatory agencies are aware of the risks and have taken or are considering appropriate regulatory actions for most alkaloids. These vary from setting limits for the presence of a compound in feed, foods and beverages, trying to define safe upper limits, advising on a strategy aiming at restrictions in use, informing the public to be cautious or taking specific plant varieties from the market. For some alkaloids known to be present in the modern food chain, e.g., piperine, nicotine, theobromine, theophylline and tropane alkaloids risks coming from the human food chain are considered to be low if not negligible. Remarkably, for many alkaloids that are known constituents of the modern food chain and of possible concern, tolerable daily intake values have so far not been defined.     

Zein and zein -based nano-materials for food and nutrition applications: A review

BackgroundZein, a byproduct of corn with renewable resources, unique hydrophobic/hydrophilic character, film/fiber forming and antioxidant properties, is a promising biopolymer for food and nutrition applications. The advantages in properties and efficiencies of nano materials over bulk counterparts are the basis of their unique nature in novel technologies. These advantages also expand their possible applications.Scope and approachAn effort has been made to review on applications of zein/zein-based nano-materials in various branches of food (except food packaging) and nutrition sectors. The effects of various parameters affecting preparations and properties of the nano-materials are also discussed. Nano-encapsulation of foods and nutrients is the major section of this study.Key findings and conclusions(i) the average size of zein nanoparticles reported to be 50–200 nm; (ii) the functions of zein nanomaterials were multiples: a carrier of delivery (food, beverage, and nutrient) systems; a shell or a core of encapsulated systems; or a food ingredient; (iii) zein-based nano-materials have been used for encapsulation of food and nutrient components including lipids; essential oils; fat soluble vitamins; food colorants; flavors; and natural anti-oxidants; (iv) the bioavailability of food and nutrient components such as folic acid, vitamin D₃, curcumin, beta-carotene, and resveratrol was improved by employing the zein-nanoparticles in comparison with the bulk counterparts; and (v) bioactive substances with potential applications for food and nutrition sectors were stabilized by zein/zein-based nano-materials.     

欧盟食品中致敏原标识法规及其科学评估

欧盟食品中致敏原标识措施中的致敏原种类及其豁免物质是世界上最多的,其确定方法也是世界上最灵活、最科学的。研究了欧盟致敏原标识法规的设立及修订现状,揭示了欧洲食品安全局所提供科学评估报告中对致敏原及其豁免清单的作用,为我国设立食品中致敏原标识措施提供参考。     

Nanomaterials for products and application in agriculture,feed and food

BackgroundNanotechnology applications can be found in agricultural production, animal feed, food processing, food additives and food contact materials (hereinafter referred to as agri/feed/food). A great diversity of nanomaterials is reported to be currently used in various applications, while new nanomaterials and applications are reported to be in development.Scope and approachIt is expected that applications of nanomaterials in agri/feed/food will increase in the future and thereby increase the human and environmental exposure to such materials. To gain up-to-date knowledge we explored and reviewed the already marketed and in-development applications of nanomaterials in the agri/feed/food sectors upon the request of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). In this paper the results of the project are highlighted and discussed in more detail.Key findings and conclusionsThe majority of the applications of nanomaterials that we identified concerned application in food as food additives and food contact materials, while much fewer applications seem to be developed for agriculture and feed. Nano-encapsulates, silver, titanium dioxide and silica are the most often mentioned nanomaterials in the literature. About half of the identified applications are claimed to be already in use. In-development applications are found for nano-encapsulates and nano-composites in novel foods, food and feed additives, biocides, pesticides and food contact materials.     

Nanotechnology in the food sector and potential applications for the poultry industry

BackgroundSalmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are among the most frequently reported foodborne diseases worldwide. Commercial chicken meat has been identified as one of the most important food vehicles for Salmonella and Campylobacter infection. Increased poultry consumption has forced producers to explore methods for increasing their production output, while maintaining the affordability and safety of their products. While the forecast benefits of nanotechnology have yet to be fully realised, it has potential application at many points along the food production chain and offers the opportunity to meet these challenges.Scope and approachThe commercial poultry processing environment plays a significant role in reducing foodborne pathogens and spoilage organisms from poultry products prior to being supplied to consumers. This review discusses the potential opportunities and challenges for adopting nano-enabled technologies in the poultry industry, with respect to applications in microbiological food safety and quality assurance in the processing plant.Key findings and conclusionsSeveral possibilities exist to exploit the benefits of nanotechnologies in the poultry processing plant to enhance the microbiological safety and quality of products. Those applications include the adoption of nano-enabled disinfectants, surface biocides, protective clothing, air and water filters, packaging, biosensors and rapid detection methods for contaminants, and technologies that assure the authenticity and traceability of products. Although the fate and potential toxicity of nanomaterials are not fully understood at this time and scientific risk assessments are required, it is evident that there have been significant advances in the application of novel nanotechnologies in the food industry.     

欧盟RASFF通报我国食品及饲料类违例信息 及趋势分析(2002至2012年)

欧盟是我国食品出口第二大市场,它利用自身优势在标准制定、认证认可、检出指标和检测限值等方面设置壁垒,影响我国食品对欧盟的出口贸易。本文对2002-2012年欧盟食品和饲料快速预警系统（Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed,RASFF）通报我国食品及饲料类产品出口欧盟的违例信息进行总结,深入分析了真菌毒素和食品接触材料两大类问题,并针对欧盟通报的重点问题和变化趋势进行分析,以期为我国政府调整出口欧盟食品政策,制修订我国农产品加工相关标准提供参考。     

Consumer confidence in the safety of food in Canada and the Netherlands: The validation of a generic framework

A thorough understanding of consumer confidence in the safety of food and the factors by which this is influenced is necessary for the development of adequate and effective risk management and communication regarding food safety issues. As food chains become globalized, risk management and communication are increasingly applied at international levels. As a consequence, cross-culturally valid theoretical models are needed to investigate consumer confidence in the safety of food. In this study, consumer confidence in the safety of food in Canada and the Netherlands was systematically compared. On the basis of two nationally representative samples, it was examined to what extent differences in consumer confidence between the two countries resulted from differences in the relative importance of the determinants of confidence, and differences in the means of the constructs. No differences between Canada and the Netherlands were found regarding the relative importance of the determinants, which provides support for the generalizability of the framework. However, results indicated that Dutch consumers had a higher level of optimism and a lower level of pessimism regarding the safety of food, which appeared to be mainly related to Dutch consumers’ lower level of concern about factors related to production. The results also indicated cross-national differences in consumer recall of food safety issues in the media.     

Development of a competitive exclusion product for poultry meeting the regulatory requirements for registration in the European Union

Competitive exclusion treatment is able to increase the pathogen colonization resistance of day-old chicks by applying probiotic bacteria stabilizing the indigenous microflora. In order to develop a safe microbial feed additive, various bacterial strains were isolated out of the gastrointestinal tract of healthy chickens. One hundred twenty-one representatives were selected based on differences in whole-cell protein patterns and screened for antagonistic properties. Five effective strains (Pediococcus acidilactici, Enterococcus faecium, Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. animalis, Lactobacillus reuteri, and Lactobacillus salivarius ssp. salivarius) exhibited in vitro the ability to inhibit a range of common pathogens and were evaluated with regard to the risks associated with genetic transfer of antibiotic resistances from animals to humans via the food chain. The probiotic strains were sensitive to several clinically effective antibiotics, though some of them showed single resistances. None of the vancomycin-resistant (R) strains carried the enterococcal vanA gene. Two tetracycline R strains were shown to harbor a tet(M)-associated resistance. The strains contained no extrachromosomal DNA and were not able to transfer the resistance by means of conjugation. On basis of the collected data the presence of easy transferable resistances was excluded and the chicken strains were considered to be suitable for the use as feed additive.     

欧盟食品添加剂相关法规综述

食品添加剂在食品行业中占有重要地位,但其使用不当很有可能会对人体造成损害甚至对人的生命造成威胁,所以在食品添加剂的使用中应通过法律进行严格的监督和管理。食品添加剂的管理体制在整个社会法制体系中占有重要的地位。欧盟关于食品添加剂的相关法律制度及其他配套制度体系的规定十分详细,并且具有很高的实践价值与社会现实意义。本文主要综述了欧盟关于食品添加剂的法律法规及监管体系,其有效的管理措施对于我国食品添加剂管理法规和监管体系的完善具有重要借鉴意义。     

应用食品安全指数法对广西水产品兽药残留风险评价

目的 分析评价广西抽验水产品的兽药残留风险。方法 以2018~ 2019年广西-东盟食品检验检测中心食品抽验中的水产品为样本 ,以问题检出率和不合格度构建食品安全指数,应用扇状模型评价法,对水产品中重点项目开展风险评价。结果 水产品总体食品安全指数R为0.090;水产品中不同类别食品安全指数R依次为：贝类：0.52、其他水产：0.14、鱼类：0.031、虾蟹类：0;兽药残留风险大小依次为：贝类＞其他水产＞鱼类＞虾蟹类。广西水产品中6种兽药残留的食品安全指数依次为：氯霉素：0.0691、恩诺沙星：0.0485、硝基呋喃类：0.0457、孔雀石绿：0.0429、磺胺类：0.0427、氟苯尼考：0.0424;风险危害程度由大到小依次是：氯霉素>恩诺沙星 >硝基呋喃类>孔雀石绿>磺胺类>氟苯尼考。结论 目前广西水产品总体兽药残留风险不大,鱼类、虾蟹类,其他水产类安全状态是可以接受的,贝类的安全性有待进一步提高。     

我国食品标准体系在食品安全监管过程中的应用及现存问题

食品标准是指导食品安全监管全链条工作科学、规范、有序开展的重要依据和准则,但一定程度上存在与监管需求符合性不佳、匹配度不足等问题。目前我国食品标准体系尚处于逐步建设和改进完善阶段。针对食品标准在食品安全监管工作中的作用和应用,本文主要分析研究食品标准体系与监管实际的符合性和匹配度,梳理分析我国食品标准体系与食品安全监管过程的符合情况。建议从标准跟踪评价、简化优化标准制修订流程、整合食品分类标准等方面逐步改进完善,为监管工作提供有力支撑和依据。     

Institutional challenges and constraints for Ghana in exporting fishery products to the European Union

The objective of this article is to provide an analysis of the key institutional challenges and constraints that Ghana faces relative to food safety when exporting fishery products to European countries. Particular attention is given to the way Ghana conforms to European Union (EU) import requirements and complies with specific food safety measures, including traceability constraints. The major findings of the analysis are, firstly, the growing difficulty for institutions to adapt to more and more stringent EU regulations and to develop new sets of domestic rules and, secondly, the lack of collaboration between key institutions does not allow the establishment of an efficient food safety system. These findings are important not only for Ghana, but also for other countries that are currently exporting fish to Europe or that wish to do so.