Organizational balancing of website interactivity and control: An examination of ideological groups and the duality of goals

Researchers have overwhelmingly concluded that substantial benefits can be achieved by organizations increasing the level of interactivity on their websites. However, interactivity, with its emphasis on facilitating visitors’ unconstrained exchanges and control over website content, may undermine the communicative purpose of an organization’s website. Taking a perspective based on the duality of goals, we argue that interactivity may not be desirable for some supporting organizations. We tested these ideas by examining the features of interactivity on 105 websites that are supported by national and international groups. Some of the websites are supported by ideological groups that have a strong interest in controlling their messages and clearly articulating their ideology to the public. A subset of the ideological groups also sanctions acts of violence in support of their ideology. As predicted, we found substantial differences in the level of interactivity between the violent groups and other ideological and non-ideological groups, with the greatest disparity occurring in social media. We conclude that for violent groups the need for control over website content and representation outweighs the benefits of interactivity. Surprisingly, we found little difference between nonviolent ideological and non-ideological groups. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Social media and credibility indicators: The effect of influence cues

Guided by the MAIN model, this study examines how individuals evaluate the source credibility of tweets and retweets based on non-content attributes. Three types of heuristics were examined, including authority, identity, and bandwagon cues. Findings suggest that all three heuristics impacted source credibility perceptions to some extent. Authority cues most strongly influenced source credibility perceptions, and cue-cumulative effects were demonstrated in which different heuristics triggered by different agency cues increased perceptions of credibility. Moreover, the presence of retweets reduced perceptions of source credibility compared to conditions with no retweets.     

How much Klout do you have … A test of system generated cues on source credibility

Social media provides a great deal of information about the users; whether it is personal likes or dislikes, social connections and networks, or general emotional states in ways not previously available to others. As a result, judgments and perceptions of a person’s credibility can be made from examining posts, tweets, or other indicators on social media (Westerman, Spence, & Van Der Heide, 2012). Because social media users create their own content, the question of how others make judgments about credibility is important (Haas & Wearden, 2003). However, until recently, a single indicator of a person’s influence on social media networks did not exist. Klout.com developed an popular indicator of this influence that creates a single score based on the idea that “everyone has influence—the ability to drive action”. The purpose of the study is to determine whether and to what degree a Klout score can influence perceptions of credibility. Results demonstrated that the mock Twitter page with a high Klout score was perceived as higher in dimensions of credibility than the identical mock Twitter page with a moderate or low Klout score.     

Interacting with news: Exploring the effects of modality and perceived responsiveness and control on news source credibility and enjoyment among second screen viewers

Increasingly media companies are using mobile devices to support second screen interactions. A variety of approaches have been used to examine how individuals might use second screens to interact with first screens. This study examines how individuals might use mobile devices to scan primary screens to receive additional news content. A between subjects experiment was conducted among college-aged audiences to examine how changes in modality and varying perceptions of responsiveness and control influenced attitudes towards news enjoyment and credibility. The results found main effects for perceived responsiveness and control. Further, users who perceived second screen experiences to afford little control increased their assessment of content credibility and enjoyment when presented with higher modality experiences. Implications for the design of second screen interactions are discussed.     

The influence of source cues and topic familiarity on credibility evaluation

An important cue in the evaluation of the credibility of online information is the source from which the information comes. Earlier, it has been hypothesized that the source of information is less important when one is familiar with the topic at hand. However, no conclusive results were found to confirm this hypothesis. In this study, we re-examine the relationship between the source of information and topic familiarity. In an experiment with Wikipedia articles with and without the standard Wikipedia layout, we showed that, contrary to our expectations, familiar users have less trust in the information when they know it comes from Wikipedia than when they do not know its source. For unfamiliar users, no differences were found. Moreover, source cues only influenced trust when the credibility of the information itself was ambiguous. These results are interpreted in the 3S-model of information trust (Lucassen & Schraagen, 2011).     

Persuasion in 140 characters: Testing issue framing,persuasion and credibility via Twitter and online news articles in the gun control debate

Using a 2 × 2 × 4 experimental design, this study examined the framing of the pro and anti-gun control arguments posited after the Sandy Hook shooting and the resultant effect on persuasion and credibility. Overall, pro-gun control frames were more persuasive and more credible than anti-gun control frames. Arguments transmitted via online news articles elicited more persuasion than those transmitted via Twitter. News article sources were deemed more credible too. I discuss the ramifications within.     

E-learning continuance: The impact of interactivity and the mediating role of imagery,presence and flow

This paper empirically examines the impact of the interactivity elicited by e-learning environments for higher education. By considering the underlying processes of imagery, spatial presence, copresence and flow, we analyse how interactivity affects users’ responses towards the learning environment, including their actual continuance behaviour. We validate our conceptual model by using survey and registrar data obtained from 2530 students of an open, distance university in the European Higher Education Area. The results suggest that the interactivity elicited by an e-learning environment unleashes imagery that in turn facilitates spatial presence and copresence as well as flow. Significant paths are also found from interactivity to flow and from flow to e-learner response variables (attitude, intention to continue and actual continuance behaviour). The paper provides a novel account of the presence and flow-enabling mechanisms in e-learning and offers novel knowledge on how higher education institutions can facilitate e-learners’ continuance behaviour.     

Paradise Lost: Children,multimedia and the myth of interactivity

Abstract The dramatic expansion of IT use in the primary schools of South-West Scotland, in the mid-1980s, centred on highly interactive and pupil-empowering forms such as LOGO or database management software. While later forms of IT in education which have come to dominate computer-use in the same area, such as multimedia encyclopaedias and ‘living books’, are worthwhile, their surface sophistication and information richness does not compensate for reduced interactivity levels and the consequent loss of learner engagement and control. The uncritical adoption of technological advances combined with reduced local authority resources to drive curriculum development have resulted in failure to embed one of the most radical educational initiatives of the late twentieth-century.     

Perpetuating online sexism offline: Anonymity,interactivity, and the effects of sexist hashtags on social media

Sexism and sexual harassment are not uncommon in online environments such as social networking sites, forums, and video games. This experiment investigated whether users’ anonymity and level of interactivity with sexist content on social media influenced sexist attitudes and offline behavior. Participants (N = 172) used a Twitter account that was anonymous or had personally identifying details. They were asked to share (i.e., retweet) or write posts incorporating a sexist hashtag. After exposure, participants completed two purportedly unrelated tasks, a survey and a job hiring simulation in which they evaluated male and female candidates’ resumés. Anonymous participants reported greater hostile sexism after tweeting than nonanonymous participants. Participants who composed sexist tweets reported greater hostile sexism and ranked female job candidates as less competent than those who retweeted, although this did not significantly affect their likelihood to hire.     

Some of these things are not like the others: Examining motivations and political predispositions among political Facebook activity

Political engagement via social media has evolved, and web sites including Facebook continue to be a place for individuals, especially young ones, to engage politically. Because politics on social media is diverse, it makes sense that the reasons for participating in it vary. In addition, because current events information and political news is accessible via social media, the role of attention to traditional news sources in this type of political engagement is debatable. The study takes up the opportunity to address these questions by examining young people’s attention to television, print, and online news, their engagement with four Facebook political activities, and their psychological motivations for using the website politically just prior to the 2012 U.S. Presidential election. The results suggest that the primary motivations for using Facebook politically are not universal, and indeed vary by activity. They revolve around connecting with others socially, sharing information with others, and presenting oneself to others. In addition, attention to offline and online news largely do not matter. The study moves research forward by describing the variety of psychological predispositions some Facebook users bring to their political engagement with the web site, and how these predispositions vary across different Facebook political behavior.     

A social network as information: The effect of system generated reports of connectedness on credibility on Twitter

Social media have gained increased usage rapidly for a variety of reasons. News and information is one such reason. The current study examines how system-generated cues available in social media impact perceptions of a source’s credibility. Participants were asked to view one of six mock Twitter.com pages that varied both the number of followers and the ratio between followers and follows on the page and report their perceived source credibility. Data indicate that curvilinear effects for number of followers exist, such that having too many or too few connections results in lower judgments of expertise and trustworthiness. Having a narrow gap between the number of followers and follows also led to increased judgments of competence. Implications of these findings are discussed, along with limitations of the current study and directions for future research.     

Interactivity in human–computer interaction: a study of credibility, understanding, and influence

Advancements in computer technology have allowed the development of human-appearing and -behaving virtual agents. This study examined if increased richness and anthropomorphism in interface design lead to computers being more influential during a decision-making task with a human partner. In addition, user experiences of the communication format, communication process, and the task partner were evaluated for their association with various features of virtual agents. Study participants completed the Desert Survival Problem (DSP) and were then randomly assigned to one of five different computer partners or to a human partner (who was a study confederate). Participants discussed each of the items in the DSP with their partners and were then asked to complete the DSP again. Results showed that computers were more influential than human partners but that the latter were rated more positively on social dimensions of communication than the former. Exploratory analysis of user assessments revealed that some features of human–computer interaction (e.g. utility and feeling understood) were associated with increases in anthropomorphic features of the interface. Discussion focuses on the relation between user perceptions, design features, and task outcomes.     

Student engagement in course-based social networks: The impact of instructor credibility and use of communication

Social network sites provide the opportunity for building and maintaining online social network groups around a specific interest. Despite the increasing use of social networks in higher education, little previous research has studied their impacts on student's engagement and on their perceived educational outcomes. This research investigates the impact of instructors' self-disclosure and use of humor via course-based social networks as well as their credibility, and the moderating impact of time spent in these course-based social networks, on the students' engagement in course-based social networks. The research provides a theoretical viewpoint, supported by empirical evidence, on the impact of students' engagement in course-based social networks on their perceived educational outcomes. The findings suggest that instructors who create course-based online social networks to communicate with their students can increase their engagement, motivation, and satisfaction. We conclude the paper by suggesting the theoretical implications for the study and by providing strategies for instructors to adjust their activities in order to succeed in improving their students' engagement and educational outcomes.     

Clicking vs. sharing: The relationship between online news behaviors and political knowledge

Online news and social media are transforming the process of news production and reading. While research has shown that news media play an important role in providing information to the public in democratic societies, research investigating the impact of sharing news online on the process of public opinion formation is in a nascent stage. This study examines the impact of viewing and sharing online news on two dimensions of political knowledge: factual knowledge and structural knowledge. Results from survey data collected over 3-waves during the 2012 US Presidential Election from an online panel of 403 US adult Internet users show that reading online news is positively related to factual political knowledge. Sharing online news, in contrast, is related to structural knowledge. We discuss these findings and their implications for future research investigating the role of online news.     

#Gettinghealthy: The perceived influence of social media on young adult health behaviors

Young adults (18–25 years old) spend a majority of their waking hours with technology and young adulthood is an important developmental time period for establishing lasting health behaviors. Considering the relevance of technology and health during young adulthood the current study explored young adults (N = 34) perceptions of social media’s (e.g., social networking) influence on their health behaviors (i.e., diet and exercise) using a social ecological framework. Data was collected through eight focus groups and four individual interviews. Three themes were identified through phenomenological qualitative analysis. Young adults perceived that technology could be both a barrier and a motivator for exercise. Social media was also credited with expanding food choices through creating access to a variety of recipes, providing a venue for showcasing the food young adults eat or prepare, and distracting young adults from making positive food choices. Participants also reported that it is common to post statuses or pictures relating to exercise practices on social media during young adulthood. Young adults indicated that these posts could be inspirational or misused, depending on the context. Results are discussed in terms of theory and preliminary implications.     

Trusting expert- versus user-generated ratings online: The role of information volume,valence, and consumer characteristics

The warranting principle, signaling theory, and theories of informational social influence suggest conditions when either user-generated information, or information originating from traditional experts, might be privileged online. A random sample of 1207 U.S.-based adults with Internet access completed an experiment that manipulated the source, volume, and valence of online movie ratings in order to test predictions derived from these perspectives. Results indicated that ratings volume is positively associated with trust of, reliance on, and confidence in user-generated content, as well as the congruence between one’s own and others’ opinions; that ratings source and volume interact to impact credibility perceptions, reliance on user-generated information, and opinion congruence, such that people tend to favor experts when there is low information volume, but favor user-generated information under conditions of high information volume; and that people’s opinions and behavioral intentions converge with the online ratings information to which they are exposed. In addition, these effects apply more strongly to people more conversant with user-generated content. Results indicate important theoretical extensions by demonstrating that social information online may be filtered through signals indicating its veracity, which may not apply equally to all social media users.     

The influence of disposition and social ties on trust in new virtual teammates

With the increased presence of social media tools such as LinkedIn and Facebook, social network information is now commonplace. Social media websites prominently display the social distance or so-called “degrees of separation” among users, effectively allowing people to view their shared social ties with others, including prospective teammates they have not met. Through the presentation and manipulation of social network information, this longitudinal experiment investigated whether dispositional and relational variables contribute to “swift trust” among new virtual teammates. Data from 74 participants were collected to test a path analytic model predicting that social ties and propensity to trust influence perceptions of a new teammate’s trustworthiness (ability, benevolence, and integrity) as well as the willingness to trust that new teammate when given the opportunity to do so. Path analysis indicated good model fit, but showed no significant evidence that social ties or propensity to trust affect perceived trustworthiness at the initial point of team engagement. Additionally, only one component of perceived trustworthiness (perceived ability) and propensity to trust were found to predict trusting behavior towards a new, unknown, teammate.     

Exploring the impact of ethnic identity through other-generated cues on perceptions of spokesperson credibility

Although previous studies indicate that perceived similarity can influence perceptions of source credibility, less is known about the impact of ethnic identity on these perceptions in social media environments. A quasi-experiment was designed to manipulate the strength of ethnic identity of an African American spokesperson promoting a health news story. The results indicate a substantive condition by participant ethnicity interaction, in which African Americans assign greater credibility to high ethnic identity spokespeople, while Caucasian respondents found low ethnic identity spokespersons more credible. The results are discussed in terms of the understanding of credibility perceptions across diverse audiences, and the implications for health communication professionals working with historically underrepresented populations.     

The impact of online real-time interactivity on patronage intention: The use of avatars

The objective of this paper is to examine the impact of online real-time interactivity on the desire of users to visit and to purchase products/services from the company in the future. Online real-time interactivity has been increased by the use of avatars. We also investigated the antecedents of online real-time interactivity by focusing on trust, emotional appeal, and social presence. As far as the methodology is concerned, we designated companies using avatars on their websites. We asked respondents to visit these websites and then fill in our questionnaire. We received 945 questionnaires back. As we had several latent variables, we used partial least squares (PLS), a variance-based structural equation modeling method. The results show that online real-time interactivity significantly increases the patronage intention. The results also illustrate the impact of the degree of trust and the emotional appeal on user's perception about the online real-time interactivity. Nevertheless, the impact of the emotional appeal is less relevant compared to the degree of trust. Moreover, the degree of trust in the information found on the website explains user's emotional appeal during the conversation. Finally, avatar's social presence has a significant impact on trust and emotional appeal. Our results have immediate and direct implications for avatars' developers and companies who want to invest in improving the real-time interactivity of their website.