Ratcheting and fatigue behavior of a copper alloy under uniaxial cyclic loading with mean stress

Stress-control fatigue tests have been conducted on a copper alloy at room temperature with and without mean stress. Ratcheting strain was measured to failure under four sets of stress amplitude and mean stress. The ratcheting strain versus cycle curve is similar to the conventional creep curve under static load consisting of primary, steady-state and tertiary stages. The steady-state rate and ratcheting strain at failure increase with mean stress for a given stress amplitude and with stress amplitude for a given mean stress. Ratcheting strain increases as the stress rate decreases. The S–N curve approach and mean stress models of Smith–Watson–Topper and Walker yielded good correlation of fatigue lives in the life range of 10²–10⁵ cycles.     

Influence of free water content on the compressive mechanical behaviour of cement mortar under high strain rate

The effect of free water content upon the compressive mechanical behaviour of cement mortar under high loading rate was studied. The uniaxial rapid compressive loading testing of a total of 30 specimens, nominally 37 mm in diameter and 18.5 mm in height, with five different saturations (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%, respectively) were executed in this paper. The technique ‘Split Hopkinson pressure bar’ (SHPB) was used. The impact velocity was 10 m/s with the corresponding strain rate as 10²/s. Water-cement ratio of 0.5 was used. The compressive behaviour of the materials was measured in terms of the maximum stress, Young’s modulus, critical strain at maximum stress and ultimate strain at failure. The data obtained from test indicates that the similarity exists in the shape of strain–stress curves of cement mortars with different water content, the upward section of the stress–strain curve shows bilinear characteristics, while the descending stage (softening state) is almost linear. The dynamic compressive strength of cement mortar increased with the decreasing of water content, the dynamic compressive strength of the saturated specimens was 23% lower than that of the totally dry specimens. With an increase in water content, the Young’s modulus first increases and then decreases, the Young’s modulus of the saturated specimens was 23% lower than that of the totally dry specimens. No significant changes occurred in the critical and ultimate strain value as the water content is changed.     

Effect of strain rate on quasistatic tensile flow behaviour of solution annealed 304 austenitic stainless steel at room temperature

Room temperature tensile test results of solution annealed 304 stainless steel at strain rates ranging between 5 × 10⁻⁴ and 1 × 10⁻¹ s⁻¹ reveal that with increase in strain rate yield strength increases and tensile strength decreases, both maintaining power–law relationships with strain rate. The decrease in tensile strength with increasing strain rate is attributed to the lesser amount of deformation-induced martensite formation and greater role of thermal softening over work hardening at higher strain rates. Tensile deformation of the steel is found to occur in three stages. The deformation transition strains are found to depend on strain rate in such a manner that Stage-I deformation (planar slip) is favoured at lower strain rate. A continuously decreasing linear function of strain rate sensitivity with true strain has been observed. Reasonably good estimation for the stress exponent relating dislocation velocity and stress has been made. The linear plot of reciprocal of strain rate sensitivity with true strain suggests that after some critical amount of deformation the increased dislocation density in austenite due to the formation of some critical amount of deformation-induced martensite plays important role in carrying out the imposed strain rate.     

High strain rate behavior of 4-step 3D braided composites under compressive failure

The out-of-plane and in-plane compressive failure behavior of 4-step 3D braided composite materials was investigated at quasi-static and high strain rates. The out-of-plane and in-plane direction compressive tests at high strain rates from 800/s to 3,500/s were tested with the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique. The quasi-static compressive tests were conducted on a MTS 810.23 tester and compared with those at high strain rates. The comparisons indicate that the failure stress, failure strain and compressive stiffness both for out-of-plane and in-plane loading directions are rate sensitive. For example, the failure stress, failure strain and stiffness are 55.19 MPa, 6.70% and 1.35 GPa respectively as opposed to 145.00 MPa, 1.21% and 13.50 GPa respectively for strain rate of 2,500 s⁻¹ under in-plane compression. The 3D braided composites have higher values of failure stress and strain for out-of-plane than for in-plane compression at the same strain rate; however, the in-plane compression stiffness is higher than that of out-of-plane compression at high strain rates. The compressive failure mode of 3D braided composites in the out-of-plane direction is mainly shear failure at various strain rates, while for the in-plane direction it is mainly cracking of matrix.     

Influence of strain rate on ultimate tensile stress of coarse-grained and ultrafine-grained copper

In the present paper OFHC (oxygen free high conductivity) copper was tested by static and dynamic tensile tests at room temperature owing to strain rate investigation. Because of coarse-grained (CG) and ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure observation the copper was subjected to drawing and ECAP processes. The investigation of strain rate and microstructure was focused on the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) after the tensile tests. Following this study, it was found that strain rate is an important characteristic influencing the mechanical properties of copper. The ultimate tensile stress grew with strain rate increasing and this effect is more visible at high strain rates ( ~ 10² s⁻¹). Moreover, it was revealed that strain rate hasn't got any influence on the failure mechanism of the copper on the other hand it has an influence on the values of dimple size. While strain rate increases the dimple size decreases.     

Rate-dependent fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice

A series of three-point bend tests using single edge notched testpieces of pure polycrystalline ice have been performed at three different temperatures (–20°C, –30°C and –40°C). The displacement rate was varied from 1 mm/min to 100 mm/min, producing the crack tip strain rates from about 10^–3 to 10^–1 s^–1. The results show that (a) the fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice given by the critical stress intensity factor (K _IC) is much lower than that measured from the J—integral under identical conditions; (b) from the determination of K _IC, the fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice decreases with increasing strain rate and there is good power law relationship between them; (c) from the measurement of the J—integral, a different tendency was appeared: when the crack tip strain rate exceeds a critical value of 6 × 10^–3 s^–1, the fracture toughness is almost constant but when the crack tip strain rate is less than this value, the fracture toughness increases with decreasing crack tip strain rate. Re-examination of the mechanisms of rate-dependent fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice shows that the effect of strain rate is related not only to the blunting of crack tips due to plasticity, creep and stress relaxation but also to the nucleation and growth of microcracks in the specimen.     

Prediction of hot deformation behaviour of Fe-25Mn-3Si-3Al TWIP steel

Hot deformation behaviour of Fe-25Mn-3Si-3Al twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel was investigated by hot compression testing on Gleeble 3500 thermo-mechanical simulator in the temperature range from 800 to 1100 °C and at strain rate range from 0.01 to 5 s⁻¹, and the microstructural evolution was studied by metallographic observations. The results show that the true stress-true strain curves exhibit a single peak stress at certain strain, after which the flow stresses decrease monotonically until the end of deformation, showing a dynamic flow softening. The peak stress level decreases with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate, which can be predicted by the Zener-Hollomon (Z) parameter in the hyperbolic sine equation with the hot deformation activation energy Q of 405.95 kJ/mol. The peak and critical strains can also be predicted by Z parameter in power-law equations, and the ratio of critical strain to peak strain is about 0.7. The dynamic recrystallization (DRX) is the most important softening mechanism for the experimental steel during hot compression. Furthermore, DRX procedure is strongly affected by Z parameter, and the decreasing of Z value leads to more extensive DRX.     

Thermomechanical treatment of 2014 aluminium alloy

Abstract

The effect of thermomechanical treatment on the flow stress, fracture strain, structure, and precipitation behaviour of commercial grade 2014 aluminium alloy has been investigated. Specimens in the supersaturated and aged conditions were plastically deformed in torsion tests in the temperature range 293–493 k and strain rate range 2·8 ×10^?3?2·5 s^?1. It is stated that the starting condition of the alloy acts dominantly on the flow stress, fracture strain, and thermally activated processes, which take place during aging. An increase in temperature results mainly in a reduction of flow stress in the aged alloy and an increase in flow stress in the supersaturated alloy. The supersaturated alloy exhibits negative strain rate sensitivity over the entire range of applied temperature while for the aged alloy it is exhibited only in the temperature range 293–393 K. The effect of temperature and strain rate on the fracture strain of the supersaturated alloy is negligible, but the fracture strain of the aged alloy increases with temperature and decreases with strain rate. In the supersaturated alloy, the process of strain aging is dominant during deformation at room temperature and at higher temperatures precipitation aging and recovery are dominant. In the aged alloy, strain aging is dominant in the temperature range 293–443 K and recovery is dominant only at the highest test temperature (493 K).

MST/616     

Hot deformation behavior of 7150 aluminum alloy during compression at elevated temperature

Hot compression tests of 7150 aluminum alloy were preformed on Gleeble-1500 system in the temperature range from 300 °C to 450 °C and at strain rate range from 0.01 s^? 1 to 10 s^? 1, and the associated structural changes were studied by observations of metallographic and transmission electron microscope. The results show that the true stress–true strain curves exhibit a peak stress at a critical strain, after which the flow stresses decrease monotonically until high strains, showing a dynamic flow softening. The peak stress level decreases with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate, which can be represented by a Zener–Hollomon parameter in the hyperbolic-sine equation with the hot deformation activation energy of 229.75 kJ/mol. In the deformed structures appear the elongated grains with serrations developed in the grain boundaries, decreasing of Z value leads to more adequate proceeding of dynamic recrystallization and coarser recrystallized grains. The subgrains exhibit high-angle sub-boundaries with a certain amount of dislocations and large numbers of dynamic precipitates in subgrain interiors as increasing Z value. The dynamic recovery and recrystallization are the main reasons for the flow softening at low Z value, but the dynamic precipitates and successive dynamic particles coarsening have been assumed to be responsible for the flow softening at high Z value.     

Uniaxial compression of SiO2 glass cylinders: analysis using stress‐independent material coefficients

Glass cylinders made of the vitreous silica type Suprasil 1 were exposed to axial stress at nominal compressive strain rates from –10^–5 to –10^–2 per second in a servohydraulic press at constant temperatures ranging from 1273 K to 1648 K. Subsequently, the stress was allowed to relax. True viscoelasticity is applied for evaluation of the experimental results and closed‐form solutions demonstrate that the interpretation as a single‐element Maxwell model renders Young's modulus readily measurable along with the tensile viscosity. The significant contribution of elasticity is found to be inherent in glass even at elevated temperatures. This very distinct property did not receive general recognition before and has been neglected in the majority of earlier studies on glass upsetting. The analysis reveals that the Young's modulus decreases with a rise in temperature if the nominal strain rate is held fixed, and with a reduction in nominal strain rate at constant temperature. The viscosity can be characterized as a function of the temperature either by a Vogel‐Fulcher‐Tammann‐Hess equation or by an Arrhenian fit. The findings when fed into a FEM programme reproduce the recorded force histories quite well. However, the present study reveals that the experimental data of Young's modulus depend on the stress. The results prove unambiguously the failure of linear viscoelasticity for this particular loading case. The full implications are reserved for a subsequent publication dealing with important consequences for glass rheology.     

Long fatigue life critical crack lengths*

A model based on surface strain redistribution and crack closure is presented for prediction of the endurance or fatigue limit stress by determining the threshold stress and critical length of short cracks that develop under microstructural control. The threshold stress first decreases with crack size to a local minimum then increases to a local maximum corresponding to the fatigue limit stress. This occurs at the critical crack length corresponding to about four grain diameters. The model is capable of determining the threshold stress range and depth of propagating and non‐propagating surface cracks as a function of stress ratio, material and grain size. The microstructure is shown to be particularly significant in the very long life regime (N_f ≈ 10⁹ cycles). When the surface cracks become non‐propagating, internally initiated cracks continue growing slowly, eventually reaching the critical crack length with failure occurring after a very high number of cycles (10⁷ < N_f < 10⁹ cycles).     

固态高聚物的应力松弛行为

研究了高密度聚乙烯（HDPE）和聚丙烯（PP）变形过程的应变率敏感性和应力松弛行为，实验发现应力松弛行为与应变历史有关，加载过程中的应力松弛表现为应力随时间的增长而减小，卸载过程中应力松驰则表现出不同的现象，在卸载初始阶段，应力逐渐减小并趋于其平衡值，当卸载程度较大，其应力松弛表现为应力随时间逐渐增大并趋向平衡值。     

Influence of stress triaxiality and strain rate on the failure behavior of a dual-phase DP780 steel

To better understand the in-service mechanical behavior of advanced high-strength steels, the influence of stress triaxiality and strain rate on the failure behavior of a dual-phase (DP) 780 steel sheet was investigated. Three flat, notched mini-tensile geometries with varying notch severities and initial stress triaxialities of 0.36, 0.45, and 0.74 were considered in the experiments. Miniature specimens were adopted to facilitate high strain rate testing in addition to quasi-static experiments. Tensile tests were conducted at strain rates of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 s⁻¹ for all three notched geometries and compared to mini-tensile uniaxial samples. Additional tests at a strain rate of 1500 s⁻¹ were performed using a tensile split Hopkinson bar apparatus. The results showed that the stress–strain response of the DP780 steel exhibited mainly positive strain rate sensitivity for all geometries, with mild negative strain rate sensitivity up to 0.1 s⁻¹ for the uniaxial specimens. The strain at failure was observed to decrease with strain rate at low strain rates of 0.001–0.1 s⁻¹; however, it increased by 26% for an increase in strain rate from 0.1 to 1500 s⁻¹ for the uniaxial condition. Initial triaxiality was found to have a significant negative impact on true failure strain with a decrease of 32% at the highest triaxiality compared to the uniaxial condition at a strain rate of 0.001 s⁻¹. High resolution scanning electron microscopy images of the failure surfaces revealed a dimpled surface while optical micrographs revealed shearing through the thickness indicating failure occurred via ductile-shear. Finite element simulations of the tests were used to predict the effective plastic strain versus triaxiality history within the deforming specimens. These predictions were combined with the measured conditions at the onset of failure in order to construct limit strain versus triaxiality failure criteria.     

Effects of strain rate and temperature on dynamic mechanical behaviour and microstructural evolution in aluminium–scandium (Al–Sc) alloy

Abstract

The present study applies a compressive split Hopkinson bar to investigate the mechanical response, microstructural evolution and fracture characteristics of an aluminium–scandium (Al–Sc) alloy at temperatures ranging from ? 100 to 300°C and strain rates of 1·2 × 10³, 3·2×10³ and 5·8 × 10³ s^?1. The relationship between the dynamic mechanical behaviour of the Al–Sc alloy and its microstructural characteristics is explored. The fracture features and microstructural evolution are observed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy techniques. The stress–strain relationships indicate that the flow stress, work hardening rate and strain rate sensitivity increase with increasing strain rate, but decrease with increasing temperature. Conversely, the activation volume and activation energy increase as the temperature increases or the strain rate decreases. Additionally, the fracture strain reduces with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature. The Zerilli–Armstrong fcc constitutive model is used to describe the plastic deformation behaviour of the Al–Sc alloy, and the error between the predicted flow stress and the measured stress is found to be less than 5%. The fracture analysis results reveal that cracks initiate and propagate in the shear bands of the Al–Sc alloy specimens and are responsible for their ultimate failure. However, at room temperature, under a low strain rate of 1·2 × 10³ s^?1 and at a high experimental temperature of 300°C under all three tested strain rates, the specimens do not fracture, even under large strain deformations. Scanning electron microscopy observations show that the surfaces of the fractured specimens are characterised by transgranular dimpled features, which are indicative of ductile fracture. The depth and density of these dimples are significantly influenced by the strain rate and temperature. The transmission electron microscopy structural observations show the precipitation of Al₃Sc particles in the matrix and at the grain boundaries. These particles suppress dislocation motion and result in a strengthening effect. The transmission electron microscopy analysis also reveals that the dislocation density increases, but the dislocation cell size decreases, with increasing strain rate for a constant level of strain. However, a higher temperature causes the dislocation density to decrease, thereby increasing the dislocation cell size.     

Tensile flow behavior of ultra low carbon,low carbon and micro alloyed steel sheets for auto application under low to intermediate strain rate

This paper is concerned with tensile characteristics of auto grade low carbon, ultra low carbon and micro alloyed steel sheets under low to intermediate strain rates ranging from 0.0007 to 250 s⁻¹. Experimental investigation reveals two important aspects of these steels under intermediate strain rate deformation. Firstly, the yield stress increases with strain rate in all these steels. Of course yield stress increment is higher for low carbon and ultra low carbon steel sheets. Secondly, the strain hardening rate drastically decreases with strain rate for low carbon and ultra low carbon steel sheets, whereas it remains steady for micro alloyed steel sheets. Based on these observations, a constitutive model has been proposed which predicts the strain rate sensitive flow behavior of all these grades within the strain rate range of automotive crash event.     

The relationship between creep and strength behavior of ice at failure

This work explores the correspondence between the results of creep and strength tests performed on isotropic polycrystalline ice. A unique experimental procedure, termed a two-mode test in the present work, allows the testing of a single specimen under conditions of constant deformation rate up to failure and constant load thereafter.Using this procedure, the prevailing values of stress, strain and strain rate can be compared at the failure point under the two test modes without the influence of specimen variation. The effect of the stress path prior to failure on the creep behavior after failure can also be investigated.Tests were performed at temperatures of ?5°C and ?10°C and initial strain rates ranged from 10^?6 to 2.2 × 10^?5 s^?1. Results indicate coincidence of the failure points from creep and strength tests in stress/strain-rate/strain space. Furthermore, it appears that within the range of variables tested, the creep behavior after the mode switch at failure is independent of the stress path experienced before failure.     

2519A铝合金热压缩流变行为和显微组织分析

在Gleeble-1500D热模拟仪上进行热压缩实验,研究温度从300℃～450℃、应变速率为0．001～10s^-1时2519A铝合金热压塑行为,并用金相显微镜分析在不同热压缩条件下的组织形貌特征。结果表明,流变应力开始随着应变的增大而增大,出现峰值之后慢慢减小并慢慢趋于平稳。应力峰值随温度的增加而减小,随应变增大而增大,其热变形行为可用包含Zener-Hollomon参数的双弦本构关系来描述,得到平均激活能Q=223．11706kj／mol。合金在0．001s^-1～1s^-1。应变速率条件下软化机制主要为动态回复,而当应变速率上升到10s^-1后,合金微观组织出现局部动态再结晶。     

ZK60和ZK60-1.0Er镁合金热压缩变形和加工图

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟试验机对ZK60和ZK60-1.0Er镁合金进行了热压缩实验,分析了合金在温度为160~420℃,应变速率为0.0001~1.0s-1条件下的流变应力变化特征。结果表明:两种镁合金在热压缩过程中的流变应力随变形温度的降低和应变速率的升高而增加,在流变应力达到峰值后随即进入稳态流变;稀土Er的加入使得平均变形激活能珚Q值由183kJ/mol降到153kJ/mol,应力指数n值由6提高到8;发生动态再结晶的临界应力σc值随变形温度升高和应变速率降低而降低,在420℃/1.0s-1高温高应变速率时,稀土Er的加入使得ZK60镁合金发生动态再结晶的临界应力值σc由76MPa降到50MPa。通过动态模型构建热加工图并结合金相组织观察可知:稀土Er的加入缩小了ZK60镁合金的热加工失稳区,增加了热加工安全区的功率耗散效率峰值η_(max),由35%增大到45%,促进了动态再结晶晶粒的形核,但抑制了再结晶晶粒的长大。     

Constitutive modeling of powder metallurgy processed Al–4%Cu preforms during compression at elevated temperature

In this study, a hot deformation constitutive base analysis has been conducted on powder metallurgy (P/M) processed Al–4%Cu preforms. The main objective is to evaluate the effect of initial relative density on the hot deformation behaviour and to establish the constitutive equation which considers the effect of initial relative density during hot compression test. This has been carried out by using the true stress–true strain curve data obtained from hot compression test of P/M processed Al–4%Cu preforms with different initial relative density of 0.84, 0.87 and 0.9 for various range of temperature 300–500 °C and strain rate range of 0.1–0.4 s⁻¹. It has been found that the flow stress is notably influenced by initial relative density, temperature and strain rate. The results show that the flow stress exhibits peak value at certain strain value, and then decreases showing flow softening until the flow stress remains constant at higher strain values. A constitutive equation that predicts the flow stress in hot compression of P/M processed Al–4%Cu preforms has been developed. The predicted flow stress values are in a good agreement with the experimental results and it is confirmed that the formulated constitutive equation is accurate and reliable to predict the flow stress of Al–4%Cu preforms during hot compression at elevated temperature.     

Analysis of the energy and damage evolution rule for sandstone based on the particle flow method

We use the particle flow code PFC3D to simulate the triaxial compression of sandstone under various radial stresses and loading strain rates to determine the triaxial stress-strain curves, crack propagation path, and contact forces to investigate the failure process of sandstone. We analyze the energy and damage evolution during triaxial compression. The results indicate that the tension and shear-induced cracks increase with the increase of radial stress under the same loading strain rate. Both normal and tangential contact forces exhibit strong anisotropy and increase with radial stress and strain rate. The normal contact force has an approximately symmetrical distribution with respect to the horizontal plane, whereas the tangential contact force has an approximately symmetrical distribution with respect to the axis. For the characteristics of the energy evolution, the boundary energy density, strain energy density, and dissipated energy density all increase linearly with the radial stress, and the boundary energy density increases at the fastest rate, followed by the strain energy density and dissipated energy density. In the post-peak stage the primary energy consumption is the dissipated energy. After that, in the remaining stage the strain energy decreases gradually. By analyzing the evolution of the damage variables in the prepeak area we observed that the damage variable followed an exponential relationship with the axial strain. When the loading strain rate is constant, the damage variable corresponding to the same strain value decreases with increase of radial stress. The results indicate that the increase in radial stress delays the damage acceleration. In contrast, the effect of the loading strain rate on the damage variable is small. The findings reveal the internal structural evolution of rocks during deformation and failure.