Effect of temperature on friction and oscillating sliding wear of dense and porous 3Y-TZP zirconia ceramics

Microstructures of 3 mol% Y₂O₃-ZrO₂ (3Y-TZP) with systematically varying porosity up to about 15% were produced by sintering. Hardness and fracture toughness of the ceramics as well as the amount of tetragonal, cubic and monoclinic phase were measured. Wear tests were carried out on the different self-mated microstructures under dry reciprocating sliding contact using ring-on-block geometries in air at five different contact temperatures up to 500°C. The microstructures and worn surfaces were extensively analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction techniques. The experimental results revealed a reduction of the amount of wear (independent of porosity) by more than one order of magnitude compared with room temperature if the test temperature was increased to 250°C. Between room temperature and 250°C, wear increased with increasing porosity while at 500°C the highest wear was measured on the dense structure. Microscopic observations showed that plastic deformation, surface layers consisting of compacted wear debris and also intercrystalline, transcrystalline or delamination type fracture influenced friction and wear.     

Applications of ceramics for tribological components

Fine ceramics are expected to be applied as new materials to many tribological components because of their superior heat resistance and corrosion resistance and their high hardness. In this paper, wear and frictional test results from applications of these components in machines are given and the capabilities of fine ceramics are described.     

分形几何与摩擦学进展

由于分形几何在解决非线性问题中的独特作用,它自创立以来,在摩擦学研究中发挥了重要作用。本文结合作者的研究工作综述了分形几何在诸如粗糙表面表征、接触、摩擦温升和磨损预测等方面的应用研究现状和发展。     

Frictional characteristics of ceramics under water‐lubricated conditions

Friction experiments were conducted on four kinds of ceramics (SiC, Si₃N₄, Al₂O₃ and ZrO₂) against themselves in water under different contact pressures and sliding velocities. The variations of friction coefficients as a function of sliding distance, and the effects of mean contact pressure and sliding velocity on friction coefficients were shown. Friction coefficients lower than 0.03 were observed under a certain combination of mean contact pressure and sliding velocity for each material. The friction coefficient suddenly increased when the mean contact pressure was above a threshold value, which depended on both sliding velocity and the material of sliding pairs. SiC had a higher threshold value than the other three ceramics at every sliding velocity investigated. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Dry and water-lubricated slip-rolling of Si3N4- and SiC-based ceramics

Tests on self-mated Si₃N₄- and SiC-based ceramics as well as ceramic-ceramic composites were performed in an Amsler-type wear tester under dry and water-lubricated rolling conditions with 10% slip. Under dry friction, wear coefficients of the materials varied by four decades. Unlubricated wear coefficients below 10⁻⁷ mm³/(N.m), defined as a practical limit for applicability, can be achieved with Si₃N₄-TiN below 775 MPa and with HIP-SiC below 750 MPa. HIPped Si₃N₄ and hot-pressed SiC-TiC under dry friction exhibit a small dependency of wear coefficient on Hertzian pressure, with wear coefficients below 10⁻⁶ mm³/(N.m). The lowest wear coefficient below 10⁻⁶ mm³/(N.m) with water lubrication was found for Si₃N₄-TiN and S-RBSi₃N₄; water reduces the variability in wear coefficient for Si₃N₄- and SiC-based ceramics.     

Tribological Behavior of Ceramics at High Sliding Speeds in Steam

Three sets of tests were conducted using a pin-on-disk tribometer to determine the tribological behavior of ceramics at high sliding speeds in steam. In the first set, the speed was increased from 4000rpm to 10,000rpm in 1000 rpm increments. Constant rotational speeds of 4000rpm, 6000rpm, 8000 rpm and 10,000 rpm were used in the second test series. In the third series of tests, the rotational speed was slowly increased to 10,000rpm and allowed to coast down to zero. While the coefficient of friction for silicon nitride/YTZP pair varied between 0.2 and 0.4 without a clear pattern as the speed was increased in the first two test series, it decreased from about 0.6 to 0.2 when the speed was raised to 10,000 rpm in the third test series. This behavior is attributed to the general phenomena of powder lubrication as the wear debris provides an interfacial layer leading to reduced friction at high speeds. The coefficient of friction for silicon nitride/silicon carbide pair was substantially reduced to about 0.02 as the speed was raised. The low coefficient of friction, however, increased to a high level as the speed was further increased. The drop in friction is explained based on analysis of elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication assuming that a water film containing solid particles exists at the interface. Several possible mechanisms are suggested for the transition to a higher friction as the speed is raised: thermal effects at high flash temperatures, low residence times (for water adsorption on surface), collapse of the lubricant film and starvation effects.     

Investigation on grinding temperature in ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding of zirconia ceramics

The feasibility of ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding (UVAG) in machining brittle materials, such as zirconia ceramics, has been preliminarily proved. The high temperature generated in grinding processes is a main factor responsible for thermal and surface/subsurface damage. However, there are few reports about grinding temperature for zirconia ceramics by UVAG. In this study, a grinding force model is used for the analysis of grinding temperature in UVAG based on kinematic principle of ultrasonic vibration and brittle material fracture removal mechanism. Then, the heat fluxes equation during grinding process is analyzed. And the grinding temperature model is developed based on theoretical grinding force model and heat fluxes. Finally, pilot experiments are carried out to analyze influence of vibration parameters and process parameters on UVAG temperature and verify the mathematical model. The comparison results show that ultrasonic vibration has an important influence on grinding temperature with the reduction of 10.6%. In addition, there is a good consistency between mathematical model and the experimental results. The average relative error is within 10%. Therefore, the mathematical model could be used to predict the UVAG temperature.     

Tribological behaviour of colloidally processed sialon ceramics sliding against steel under dry conditions

Advanced structural ceramics are presently used in several tribological applications such as precision instrument bearings, water pumps, automotive engine parts and cutting tools inserts. In the present work, the tribological behaviours of colloidally processed and pressureless sintered sialon ceramics with different phases ( and ) have been studied, aiming at increasing the industrial applications of sialon ceramics. The friction and wear behaviour of sialon ceramics against steel DIN-Ck45K were investigated using a pin-on-disk tribometer under dry conditions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS) were used to analyse the worn surfaces of the sialon ceramics. Under the conditions used, sialon ceramics exhibited a typical mild wear (10^-6 mm³ N^-1 m^-1) and the dominant wear mechanisms present were adhesive and abrasion. The results confirmed that colloidal processing and pressureless sintering are effective methods to prepare wear resistant sialon ceramic components.     

不同环境气氛对高速干滑动钢/铜摩擦副磨损机制的影响

利用MMS-1G型高温高速销-盘摩擦磨损试验机,以钢/铜摩擦副为研究对象,研究了不同环境气氛对高速干滑动钢/铜摩擦副磨损机制的影响,应用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、能谱分析仪(EDS)对销试样磨损表面进行分析。结果表明:随着pv值的增加,氧气条件下的磨损机制由粘着磨损转变为氧化磨损;氮气条件下的磨损机制由粘着磨损转变为金属流变和磨粒磨损。氮气气氛条件下的摩擦因数和磨损率均高于氧气气氛条件下的摩擦因数和磨损率。     

Friction and wear behaviour of partially stabilised zirconia in reduced pressure atmospheres containing organic compounds: Potential for process lubrication of ceramics

Friction and wear tests were used to evaluate a partially stabilised zirconia (PSZ) disc rubbing against a PSZ pin in a high-vacuum sliding tester. The surrounding atmosphere contained an organic compound vapour (either benzene, acetone, methane or methanol) at a reduced pressure. In order to understand the mechanism of the tribochemical reaction, the sliding conditions, velocity, and load were varied. During the sliding test, the friction coefficient, surface electrostatic voltage, and adsorption behaviour were measured dynamically. After the sliding test, the worn surfaces were analysed with EPMA and TOF-SIMS to characterise the components and the molecular weight of the reaction products. The formation of sticky reaction products was observed on the sliding surface in benzene and acetone vapours. These products acted as lubricants, reducing the friction coefficients and wear rates. Analysis suggested that such sticky reaction products contained molecules up to 1000 atomic mass units (AMU).     

A new tool for industrial tribology filling the gap between macro‐ and nano‐ tribology

The aim of this paper is to illustrate the similarities and variations between friction and wear data acquired with two different types of laboratory tribological test equipment that not only operate in the gap between macro‐ and nano‐testing, but also provide test parameters that allow an overlap across the whole scale from macro‐ to nanoscale friction and wear tests. Comparative wear tests were conducted under identical test conditions in the overlap region between macro‐ and micro‐regions using an existing piece of laboratory fretting test equipment and a novel one. The experimental test data obtained with these two experimental set‐ups are discussed.     

The tribology of plastics — an overview

With the widening use of plastics, it has become an urgent task to study their behaviour in friction systems. The present paper reviews the applications of plastics during the past decades and their function in friction systems. The paper analyses the basic differences between metals and plastics in structure and properties, and points out the limitations, or inapplicability, of using metal tribology to solve problems in plastic friction systems when even different kinds of high-molecular materials have different shapes and applications. The paper also looks at the variety of plastic surfaces, and briefly presents the mechanism, theory, and calculation of the fiction, wear, and lubrication of plastics; theories of plastic wear are summarised. Also presented are the technical functions, simple application techniques, and economic benefits of plastic friction systems.     

On the influence of test parameters on friction and wear of ceramics in oscillating sliding contacts

The tribological behaviour of different ceramics in contact with steel was studied for the case of oscillating sliding motion with a ball-on-disc apparatus. The influence of several test condition parameters was investigated by a systematic variation of the stroke, frequency, and normal load at room temperature in laboratory air at different levels of relative humidity. Each of the four parameters was varied in three stages. While the coefficient of friction was only mildly influenced by the operational variables, the coefficient of wear showed great variations and depended strongly on the humidity of the surrounding air. The effect of the operational variables and of the humidity on friction and wear varied for the different materials under investigation.     

Relationship of surface slope distributions to the wear mechanisms of ceramics

Many ceramics wear by more than a single wear mechanism. To understand how different wear mechanisms contribute to the wear properties of ceramics, quantitative measures of those mechanisms are required. Surface slope distribution analysis was investigated as a method of quantitatively analysing wear mechanism signatures, based on a simple model of the variation of slope with wear mechanism. Slope distribution was shown to be similar for materials within the same class of ceramics, e.g. silicon carbides. However, the range of slope parameters for a mechanism overlapped with that of other mechanisms, so that a mechanism was not found to yield a unique combination of slope parameters. A comparison of wear rate and slope distribution showed that wear could be correlated with specific sections of the distribution, and that this correlation was dependent upon the ‘dominant’ wear mechanism. Secondary effects on the slope distribution, e.g. porosity, invalidated the data for that material for use in slope analysis.     

基于摩擦功原理的高副滑动磨损的研究

针对现有的摩擦磨损计算公式不能全面反映磨损机理的问题,根据摩擦功原理,推导了基于磨损功的高副滑动磨损计算公式;在考虑刚度变化将引起齿间载荷动态变化的情况下,进行了机车齿轮副磨损的计算仿真分析,计算结果与实际磨损情况相符。研究表明,该公式为滑动摩擦副磨损计算提供了一种原理清晰、使用简便的新方法,为齿轮副与凸轮副等复杂曲面的高副磨损状态评估提供了可靠依据。     

The method of assessment of the of friction contact fatigue parameters of technological ceramics and crystals

Two formulas were derived earlier using the theory of wear of I.V. Kraguelskii to calculate the wear resistance of friction pairs. To use them it was necessary to determine the friction contact fatigue parameters. The present paper deals with the method of experimental calculated assessment of these parameters and the results of its validation using wear resistant nanostructured alloyed zirconium dioxide crystals and engineering ceramics.     

Effect of Nickel on the Wear Rate of Fe‐Cr‐C‐Ni Steel Under Sliding Friction

Under sliding friction, nickel (0.3–4.2 wt.%) alloyed with chromium steel (1.2 wt.% carbon; 15 wt.% chromium) exerts a fundamental influence upon the initial structure of the steel and the phase composition and structure of the near‐surface friction layers. The minimum wear of the steel occurs when there is a dynamic equilibrium between the dislocation densities in the α‐ and γ‐phases and a ratio between the γ‐ and α‐phases of 50:50 for steels after quenching and 25:75 for steels after tempering in the near‐surface friction layers.     

干滑动条件下45CrNi材料摩擦磨损规律研究

以某自行火炮底座传动箱摩擦副所用材料45CrNi为研究对象,考察了该材料在不同热处理状态下（530℃回火、380℃回火、830℃淬火及原始状态）组成摩擦副时的干滑动摩擦磨损特性。试验结果表明：530℃回火盘和摩始销组成摩擦配副时结合最好,具有较好的摩擦磨损性能,销试样磨损率最小;在较低速度下载荷是影响材料摩擦因数的主要因素,而速度对摩擦因数的影响较小;粘着磨损是材料配副磨损的主要形式。     

CrNiMo钢在高速干滑动条件下摩擦表面的组织变化研究

在MMS-1G型高速干滑动摩擦磨损试验机上,采用CrNiMo钢作为销试样,与H96黄铜盘配副,进行了高速干滑动摩擦磨损试验,研究其高速干滑动摩擦磨损性能。对试验后的试样沿纵切面进行微观组织分析,探讨摩擦表面在试验前后及不同试验参数条件下的组织变化。结果表明,在高速干滑动条件下,CrNiMo钢材料的摩擦磨损性能随滑动速度的增加存在突变,其微观组织摩擦后沿纵切面发生了较大变化,且摩擦表面组织随滑动速度增加,发生了回复再结晶及碳化物的析出和长大。     

Method for continuous detection of different friction and wear regimes and application to the behaviour of ceramics at high temperature

This paper describes tests carried out on a tribometer functioning at high temperature and equipped to record continuously the various test parameters, namely, the normal applied load, the tangential friction force, the differential movement of the contact surfaces, and the temperature of the sample. Dry friction tests, conducted on two aluminas of different purities, showed different degradation regimes at both 20 and 800°C. Thus, three successive periods of functioning were identified and correlated with transitions in the mechanism of degradation of the surfaces or in the mechanism of interfacial adaptation in the contact. The first period corresponds basically to the adaptation mechanisms of the interfaces with no wear material generated. The two subsequent periods demonstrate the degradation mechanisms of the surfaces leading to the production of more or less wear material and resulting in different states of equilibrium between production, recirculation, and loss of wear debris through the contact.