Lightweight geopolymer concrete: A critical review on the feasibility,mixture design,durability properties,and microstructure

Lightweight geopolymer concretes have gained attention because of their superior durability, lower environmental impact and sustainable characteristics. They are the product of natural or artificial aggregates with low specific gravities mixed with aluminosilicate binders, and an alkaline solution. In this study, different aspects of lightweight geopolymer concretes and mortars such as environmental and economic considerations, materials and mixture, durability-related properties like permeability, chloride attacks and performance at high temperatures, thermal conductivity, and the microstructure are reviewed. This study also discusses the effect of different geopolymer binders and various alkaline activators and additives with focus on lightweight geopolymer concrete made with different lightweight aggregates. The key results from previous studies in literature pertaining mix proportions, chemical composition and properties of lightweight geopolymers are summarized and presented. The main aim is to provide an informed outlook on the advantages and drawbacks of lightweight geopolymer concretes and present a comprehensive review of the studies performed in this area.     

In situ inorganic foams prepared from various clays at low temperature

Geopolymers are amorphous three-dimensional aluminosilicate binder materials that may be synthesized at room or slightly higher temperature by alkaline activation of aluminosilicates obtained from industrial wastes, calcined clays, natural minerals or mixtures of two or more of these materials. Among the different families of geopolymers, those based on potassium show modified thermal and mechanical properties due to the larger size of the potassium ion compared to sodium. This work deals with the preparation of geopolymer foams based on potassium silicate, industrial waste and various types of clays (kaolin, metakaolin, illite or montmorillonite). The influence of the clays used is assessed in terms of clay reactivity using structural data determined by FTIR spectroscopy, thermal analysis, XRD, and SEM characterizations.In situ geopolymer foam was obtained from all of the clays but its characteristics depended on the nature of the clays, including their structural alteration and chemistry. The extent of destruction of the clay structure was partial for kaolinite but was greater for illite, followed by montmorillonite. These inorganic foams have a potential use in housing construction, since they display thermal insulating properties.     

Durability of geopolymer materials in sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions

This paper presents an investigation into the durability of geopolymer materials manufactured using class F fly ash and alkaline activators when exposed to a sulfate environment. Three tests were used to determine resistance of geopolymer materials. The tests involved immersions for a period of 5 months into 5% solutions of sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate, and a solution of 5% sodium sulfate+5% magnesium sulfate. The evolution of weight, compressive strength, products of degradation and microstructural changes were studied.In the sodium sulfate solution, significant fluctuations of strength occurred with strength reduction 18% in the 8FASS material prepared with sodium silicate and 65% in the 8FAK material prepared with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide as activators, while 4% strength increase was measured in the 8FA specimens activated by sodium hydroxide. In the magnesium sulfate solution, 12% and 35% strength increase was measured in the 8FA and 8FAK specimens, respectively; and 24% strength decline was measured in the 8FASS samples. The most significant deterioration was observed in the sodium sulfate solution and it appeared to be connected to migration of alkalies into solution. In the magnesium sulfate solution, migration of alkalies into the solution and diffusion of magnesium and calcium to the subsurface areas was observed in the specimens prepared using sodium silicate and a mixture of sodium and potassium hydroxides as activators. The least strength changes were found in the solution of 5% sodium sulfate+5% magnesium sulfate. The material prepared using sodium hydroxide had the best performance, which was attributed to its stable cross-linked aluminosilicate polymer structure.     

Resistance of geopolymer materials to acid attack

This article presents an investigation into durability of geopolymer materials manufactured using a class F fly ash (FA) and alkaline activators when exposed to 5% solutions of acetic and sulfuric acids. The main parameters studied were the evolution of weight, compressive strength, products of degradation and microstructural changes. The degradation was studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The performance of geopolymer materials when exposed to acid solutions was superior to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) paste. However, significant degradation of strength was observed in some geopolymer materials prepared with sodium silicate and with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide as activators. The deterioration observed was connected to depolymerisation of the aluminosilicate polymers in acidic media and formation of zeolites, which in some cases lead to a significant loss of strength. The best performance was observed in the geopolymer material prepared with sodium hydroxide and cured at elevated temperature, which was attributed to a more stable cross-linked aluminosilicate polymer structure formed in this material.     

Leachability and basicity of Na- and K-based geopolymer powders and lattices used as biodiesel catalysts

Geopolymer powders and 3D-printed lattices have shown promising preliminary results as heterogeneous catalysts for the transesterification of vegetable oils to produce biodiesel. However, questions about the basicity of catalytic sites and the leaching characteristics of metals (K, Na) and hydroxyl groups in the reactional mixtures remained. The leaching of alkaline ions in methanol and biodiesel for powder and printed geopolymer formulations based on K, Na, or Na+K activators and treated at 110 to 700°C was investigated, as well as the physiochemical modifications of the materials. The Hammett indicators were used to determine base strength, and both leachable and total basicities were quantified. The amount of Na and K leached into the biodiesel phase was negligible (<1% wt.%). Methanol leaching reached a maximum of 29.3%. The base strength ranged between 11.0 and 18.4. Potassium-based geopolymer lattices presented the highest basicity, followed by sodium and sodium-potassium geopolymer catalysts. The basicity of all formulations decreased gradually as the calcination temperature increased. When compared to the homogeneous catalysts NaOH and KOH, the level of biodiesel contamination with Na and K is 81–93% lower. The findings support the heterogeneous nature of geopolymers as biodiesel catalysts and further validates their use for this application.     

Effect of elevated temperatures on geopolymer paste, mortar and concrete

Geopolymers are generally believed to provide good fire resistance due to their ceramic-like properties. Previous experimental studies on geopolymer under elevated temperatures have mainly focused on metakaolin-based geopolymers. This paper presents the results of a study on the effect of elevated temperature on geopolymer paste, mortar and concrete made using fly ash as a precursor. The geopolymer was synthesized with sodium silicate and potassium hydroxide solutions. Various experimental parameters have been examined such as specimen sizing, aggregate sizing, aggregate type and superplasticizer type. The study identifies specimen size and aggregate size as the two main factors that govern geopolymer behavior at elevated temperatures (800 °C). Aggregate sizes larger than 10 mm resulted in good strength performances in both ambient and elevated temperatures. Strength loss in geopolymer concrete at elevated temperatures is attributed to the thermal mismatch between the geopolymer matrix and the aggregates.     

Fibre-reinforced boroaluminosilicate geopolymers: A comparative study

This paper investigates the effect of fibres on the physical and mechanical behaviour of boroaluminosilicate geopolymers (BASG) compared to conventional aluminosilicate binders. The use of various types of fibres by the means of reinforcing geopolymers against flexural loads is very common. In this work, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) are utilised as raw materials to generate geopolymer specimens. Different alkaline solutions comprising sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, and borax are prepared to activate precursors. The sodium silicate solution is substituted with borax by 30?wt% and 70?wt% in order to produce fly ash and slag-based BASG respectively. Steel and polymer fibres are employed in the mixtures for reinforcement. Three-point bending and mini slump tests are conducted for assessing the flexural strength, elastic modulus, toughness, and flow of geopolymer specimens. A pair plotting interpretation is also used in order to illustrate the patterns. The obtained results indicate that the fly ash-based BASG mortar shows superior flexural strength to the GGBS-based BASG mortar. The flexural strength of fly ash-made aluminosilicate geopolymer declines from 7.3?MPa to 6.4?MPa with an increase in the content of steel fibres from 1% to 2%. Inversely, raising the percentage of steel fibres in the fly ash-based BASG mortar caused a slight growth in the flexural strength of specimens. The polypropylene fibres, when added sufficiently, play a significant role in improving the toughness of fly ash-based BASG and slag-based aluminosilicate mixtures, more than 0.8 and 0.7?J surge in the toughness respectively. In addition, the polypropylene and steel fibres perform well in improving the elastic modulus of slag-based BASG and fly ash-based aluminosilicate binders. While keeping the water to binder ratio constant, introducing the steel fibre increased the flow of fly ash-based geopolymers. Nonetheless, the polymer fibres declined the flow of mortars.     

Influence of the interfacial composition on the adhesion between aggregates and bitumen: Investigations by EDX, XPS and peel tests

The study of the adhesion between aggregates and bitumen is necessary to enhance the lifetime of the roads. The purpose of this work concerns the interaction between the mineralogy of the aggregates and the adhesion force measured at the interface between bitumen and aggregate. The adhesion of bitumen was studied according to the mineralogy of the aggregates, which were made of dolomite rock or granite. A method was developed to measure the fracture energy during the peeling of the bitumen layer from the aggregate surface. The specific manufacturing of the samples ensured reproducible measurements using a constant thickness of the bitumen layer and by introducing a strengthened and flexible membrane into the bulk of bitumen. The peeling results demonstrated that the locus of the failure varied according to the mineralogy of the aggregate. The failure was cohesive during the peeling of the dolomite/bitumen system while the failure was partly interfacial concerning the granite/bitumen system. The interface between bitumen and minerals was characterized, before and after peeling. In case of the granite, the detection of sulfur by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) highlighted only the bitumen residues and allowed identifying the mineral compounds that weaken the interface between bitumen and granite. Finally, XPS analyses showed that the alkali feldspars of the granite induced a weak interface with bitumen.     

Effects of Si/Al ratio on the structure and properties of metakaolin based geopolymer

Geopolymer with Si/Al ratios from 2 to 4 were prepared by adding different contents of fused silica into geopolymer matrix. Effects of Si/Al ratios on the structure, mechanical properties and chemical stability in air of the obtained geopolymer were systematically investigated. The results showed that all the geopolymer samples were XRD amorphous. Geopolymer with Si/Al ratios of 2 and 2.5 showed similar structure and property and they were classed as KGP-I; and geopolymer with Si/Al ratios of 3, 3.5 and 4 were similar and they were class as KGP-II. In alkaline solution, reactivity of fused silica were higher than that of metakaolin, resulting in higher content of both residual metakaolin and free alkaline cation in KGP-II than in KGP-I. Fused silica partially reacted with the alkaline solution in KGP-II indicating chemical interfacial bonding between silica and binder phase. With the increase in Si/Al ratios, KGP-II especially for geopolymer with Si/Al of 4 showed much higher mechanical properties than KGP-I due to the increased Si-O-Si bonds and residual silica as reinforcement. However, KGP-II showed worse chemical stability in air than KGP-I, with the presence of efflorescence on the surface, which was attributed to their higher residual free K⁺.     

Coating of unreactive and reactive surfaces by aluminosilicate binder

Currently, many applications require the assembly of different materials to improve their properties in use. This work focuses on the production of a geopolymer binder coating based on metal or agglomerated sand. For this, several compositions based on sodium or potassium and different reactivities of metakaolin and their interactions in the presence of different types of support were studied. The interactions between the binder and substrate were analysed by measurements of the wetting angles. Coating trials conducted over tin-plated copper and bonded sand highlighted the influences of the binder composition and the drying and deposition parameters. Scanning electronic and optical microscopy observations confirm the chemical adhesion between the various components. FTIR spectroscopic analyses have also identified the parameters for obtaining a geopolymer network such as the reactive aluminium concentration (5 a.u.) and the molar Si/Al and M/Al (M=K or Na) ratios (2 and 1.2, respectively). It is therefore possible, by determining the wetting angle, to control the deposition on either a metal or silica sand.     

SiC-based refractory paints prepared with alkali aluminosilicate binders

Refractory paints based on silicon carbide (SiC) were developed using inorganic alkali aluminosilicates binders. In order to optimize the binders, different raw materials have been tested for their preparations (calcined kaolin, commercial metakaolin, α-alumina and fumed silica synthetic powders). The alkali activator was an aqueous solution of KOH/K₂SiO₃. The SiO₂:Al₂O₃ molar ratio was equal to 4 and the SiO₂:K₂O molar ratio was 2. Calcined kaolin and metakaolin in alkaline conditions dissolved and re-precipitated to form geopolymer resins acting as a glue for the un-reacted Al-Si materials and SiC (90 wt.%). Binders based on α-alumina and fumed silica behaved as water glass. Binders and SiC paints were tested and characterized in inert and oxidative atmospheres up to 1300 °C. The oxidation of the SiC paints was 50% lower than that of pure SiC, evidencing a key role of the alkali aluminosilicate binders during the thermal treatments.     

Synthesis of heat and ambient cured one-part geopolymer mixes with different grades of sodium silicate

The use of solid activators in the manufacture of geopolymer enhances its commercial viability as it aids the development of a one-part “just add water” geopolymer mixture, similar to the conventional Portland cement-based materials. This study is aimed to synthesize heat and ambient cured one-part geopolymer mixes. Appropriate combinations of low calcium (Class F) fly ash, slag and hydrated lime as the aluminosilicate source materials were activated by three different grades of sodium silicate and a combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide powders. A conventional two-part geopolymer mix with the commonly used sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions was also made for comparison. Effects of the type and amount of the solid activator, the amount of fly ash replacement with slag and hydrated lime and water content on short term mechanical properties of the heat cured one-part geopolymer mixtures including workability of the fresh mix, hardened density and compressive strength were evaluated. Subsequently, effects of ambient curing on the properties of the developed one-part geopolymer mixes were also investigated. Moderate to high compressive strength of over 37 MPa developed for the heat and ambient cured one-part geopolymer mixes. The 28-days compressive strengths of the ambient cured one-part geopolymer mixtures, regardless of the type of activator and geopolymer source materials, were comparable to those of the counterpart heat cured one-part geopolymer mixes. Such one-part geopolymer mixes could enhance the commercial viability and large-scale applications of the geopolymer in the construction industry.     

Effect of nano silica and fine silica sand on compressive strength of sodium and potassium activators synthesised fly ash geopolymer at elevated temperatures

Environment friendly geopolymer is a new binder which gained increased popularity due to its better mechanical properties, durability, chemical resistance, and fire resistance. This paper presents the effect of nano silica and fine silica sand on residual compressive strength of sodium and potassium based activators synthesised fly ash geopolymer at elevated temperatures. Six different series of both sodium and potassium activators synthesised geopolymer were cast using partial replacement of fly ash with 1%, 2%, and 4% nano silica and 5%, 10%, and 20% fine silica sand. The samples were heated at 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, and 800°C at a heating rate 5°C per minute, and the residual compressive strength, volumetric shrinkage, mass loss, and cracking behaviour of each series of samples are also measured in this paper. Results show that, among 3 different NS contents, the 2% nano silica by wt. exhibited the highest residual compressive strength at all temperatures in both sodium and potassium‐based activators synthetised geopolymer. The measured mass loss and volumetric shrinkage are also lowest in both geopolymers containing 2% nano silica among all nano silica contents. Results also show that although the unexposed compressive strength of potassium‐based geopolymer containing nano silica is lower than its sodium‐based counterpart, the rate of increase of residual compressive strength exposed to elevated temperatures up to 400°C of potassium‐based geopolymer containing nano silica is much higher. It is also observed that the measured residual compressive strengths of potassium based geopolymer containing nano silica exposed at all temperatures up to 800°C are higher than unexposed compressive strength, which was not the case in its sodium‐based counterpart. However, in the case of geopolymer containing fine silica sand, an opposite phenomenon is observed, and 10% fine silica sand is found to be the optimum content with some deviations. Quantitative X‐ray diffraction analysis also shows higher amorphous content in both geopolymers containing nano silica at elevated temperatures than those containing fine silica sand.     

Finding the optimum binder for fly ash pelletization

The present work investigated various binders to assist the fly ash particles' coagulation within the intermediate sintering temperature zone. In order to find the appropriate binding agents for fly ash pelletization, some common materials were examined with focus on the compressive strength. The main experimental variables were heat treatment temperature and the binder/fly ash proportions. As a result of the close investigation, alkali and acidic materials such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and phosphoric acid were found quite acceptable based on the strength and cost effectiveness. A few organic materials also acted as desirable binders, but they revealed a few critical limitations when used in aqueous solution and at hot fluid environment. Inorganic binders, such as cement and lime, showed excellent cost effectiveness, but seemed to be disadvantageous for the high temperature process.     

Structure and mechanical properties of aluminosilicate geopolymer composites with Portland cement and its constituent minerals

The compressive strengths and structures of composites of aluminosilicate geopolymer with the synthetic cement minerals C₃S, β-C₂S, C₃A and commercial OPC were investigated. All the composites showed lower strengths than the geopolymer and OPC paste alone. X-ray diffraction, ²⁹Si and ²⁷Al MAS NMR and SEM/EDS observations indicate that hydration of the cement minerals and OPC is hindered in the presence of geopolymer, even though sufficient water was present in the mix for hydration to occur. In the absence of SEM evidence for the formation of an impervious layer around the cement mineral grains, the poor strength development is suggested to be due to the retarded development of C-S-H because of the preferential removal from the system of available Si because geopolymer formation is more rapid than the hydration of the cement minerals. This possibility is supported by experiments in which the rate of geopolymer formation is retarded by the substitution of potassium for sodium, by the reduction of the alkali content of the geopolymer paste or by the addition of borate. In all these cases the strength of the OPC-geopolymer composite was increased, particularly by the combination of the borate additive with the potassium geopolymer, producing an OPC-geopolymer composite stronger than hydrated OPC paste alone.     

长石在压蒸条件下的碱溶出

测试了压蒸条件下两种天然长石在水及饱和Ca(OH) 2 溶液中碱溶出情况。结果表明 :长石在水中碱溶出量比较少 ,溶出的碱主要是钠碱。长石在饱和Ca(OH) 2 溶液中碱溶出量比较多 ,溶出的碱包括钠碱和钾碱。集料碱溶出对混凝土碱含量影响比较小     

Partial replacement of metakaolin with red ceramic waste in geopolymer

Metakaolin was incrementally replaced (33.3%, 50% and 66.6%) by red ceramic waste in geopolymer formulation to study the effect on geopolymerisation and its resultant properties. The geopolymer binders composed of two calcined aluminosilicates (viz. Metakaolin and Red ceramic waste), NaOH and sodium silicate. In the experimental compositions, metakaolin was replaced gradually up to 66.6% in the clay fraction, the Si/Al increased from 3.36 to 5.16 and Na/Al increased from 0.93 to 1.38. The FTIR spectroscopic studies of geopolymer pastes along with XRD analysis indicated that the red ceramic waste partly reacts with alkali and takes part in geopolymer formation. Replacement of 33.3% metakaolin by the red ceramic waste in geopolymer binder did not reduce the compressive strength with respect to the pure metakaolin geopolymer here. Additional replacement resulted in a drastic decrease in the compressive strength of the geopolymer binder. However, the compressive strength of geopolymer mortars revealed interesting synergy between the amount of binder and particle packing in the mortar. Despite having a lower amount of binder phase, mortars with 33% and 50% red ceramic waste exhibited maximum compressive strength values. This has been attributed to improved particle packing through incorporation of red ceramic waste particles.     

Feasibility of producing geopolymer binder based on a brick clay mixture

A brick clay mixture from a company localized in the north west of France is used for this study. The feasibility of producing geopolymer materials from a clay mixture was investigated. The final aim is to find a new application for this aluminosilicate material. One metakaolin (for a reference), the brick clay mixture, and the clay mixture calcined at two temperatures were compared after reaction with each of three alkaline solutions with different reactivity (the reactivity of each is defined). Physical, chemical, structural (FTIR and XRD) and thermal characterization (DTA) were first performed on the raw materials. Then, the structural evolution of the formed geopolymers was investigated using FTIR spectroscopy and XRD. Thus, this study demonstrates the feasibility of producing consolidated materials from a calcined brick clay (containing calcium oxides), which exhibits higher reactivity than brick clay. Plus, from a mixture of 25 wt% of less reactive materials such as ground brick clay and 75 wt% of reactive materials, it is possible to obtain geopolymer materials. FTIR study reveals the presence of a Ca²⁺ release phenomena, with a simultaneous polycondensation reaction for products based on calcined brick clay, which is different according to the silicate solution. Moreover, a link between [M⁺+M²⁺] and the different networks formed in the samples based on calcined clay was found. Indeed, it appears that the concentration within the range 10.5–14 mol/l favors the geopolymer network formation.     

Chemical interactions between siliceous aggregates and low-Ca alkali-activated cements

The chemical interactions between natural siliceous aggregates and a low-Ca alkali-activated cement (geopolymer) were studied. By leaching ideal aluminosilicate minerals such as kaolinite and albite in various alkaline solutions with or without soluble silicates, it was found that addition of 0.5 M SiO₂ to a highly alkaline activating solution ([OH⁻]₀ = 5 to 10 M) was responsible for the formation of an Al-enriched aluminosilicate surface through the initial non-stoichiometric and Si preferential dissolution of the parent aluminosilicates. This then facilitated soluble silicate deposition from the activating solutions onto the Al-rich surfaces, which resulted in the formation of a dense deposited aluminosilicate gel interfacial layer. This aluminosilicate interface formed during albite leaching ([OH⁻]₀ = 5 to 10 M and [SiO₂]₀ = 0.5 M) was found to possess a similar Si/Al ratio to the real interface between a siliceous aggregate slice (basalt or siltstone) and a low-Ca fly ash/kaolinite geopolymer, activated with an activating solution of [OH⁻]₀ = 10 M and [SiO₂]₀ = 2.5 M. Due to the similarities between the activating solutions used and the interfaces formed, it is postulated that a similar formation mechanism is shared between the deposited aluminosilicate interface formed from leaching and a ‘real’ geopolymer concrete synthesis. Without soluble silicate addition, or if a solution of low alkalinity ([OH⁻]₀ = 0.6 M and [SiO₂]₀ = 0 and 0.5 M) was used, the Al-enriched reacting surface was not formed, and no deposited aluminosilicate interface was observed in these systems.     

Effect of nano-silica on the chemical durability and mechanical performance of fly ash based geopolymer concrete

In this study, the effect of nano silica on the short term severe durability performance of fly ash based geopolymer concrete (GPC) specimens was investigated. Four types of GPC were produced with two types of low calcium fly ashes (FAI and FAII) with and without nano silica, and ordinary Portland cement concrete (OPC) concrete was also cast for reference. For the geopolymerization process, the alkaline activator has selected a mixture of sodium silicate solution (Na₂SiO₃) and sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) with a ratio (Na₂SiO₃/ NaOH) of 2.5. Main objectives of the study were to investigate the effect of usability or replaceability of nano silica-based low calcium fly ash based geopolymer concretes instead of OPC concrete in structural applications and make a contribution to standardization process of the fly ash based geopolymer concrete. To achieve the goals, four types of geopolymer and OPC concretes were subjected to sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) and seawater (NaCl) solutions with concentrations of 5%, 5%, and 3.5%, respectively. Visual appearances and weight changes of the concretes under chemical environments were utilized for durability aspects. Compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength tests were also performed on specimens to evaluate the mechanical performance under chemical environments. Results indicated that FAGPC concretes showed superior performance than OPC concrete under chemical attacks due to low calcium content. Amongst the chemical environments, sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) was found to be the most dangerous environment for all concrete types. In addition, nano silica (NS) addition to FAGPC specimens improved both durability and residual mechanical strength due to the lower porosity and more dense structure. The FAIIGPC specimens including nano silica showed the superior mechanical performance under chemical environment.