Ultra-precision grinding of optical glasses using mono-layer nickel electroplated coarse-grained diamond wheels. Part 2: Investigation of profile and surface grinding

After finishing the precision conditioning of mono-layer nickel electroplated coarse-grained diamond wheels with 151 μm (D151), 91 μm (D91) and 46 μm (D46) grain size, resp., profile and surface grinding experiments were carried out on a five-axis ultra-precision grinding machine with BK7, SF6 optical glasses and Zerodur glass ceramic. A piezoelectric dynamometer was used to measure the grinding forces, while an atomic force microscopy (AFM), white-light interferometer (WLI)) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to characterize the ground surface quality in terms of micro-topography and subsurface damage. Moreover, the wear mechanics of the coarse-grained diamond wheels were analyzed and the grinding ratio was determined as well, in aiming to evaluate the grinding performance with the conditioned coarse-grained diamond wheels. Finally, the grinding results were compared with that of the fine-grained diamond wheels with regard to the ground specimen surface quality, process forces and wheel wear as a function of stock removal. The experimental results show that the precision conditioned coarse-grained diamond wheels can be applied in ductile mode grinding of optical glasses with high material removal rates, low wheel wear rates and no dressing requirement yielding excellent surface finishes with surface roughness in the nanometer range and subsurface damage in the micrometer range, demonstrating the feasibility and applicability of the newly developed diamond grinding technique for optical glasses.     

新型点磨削砂轮磨削参数对磨削温度影响研究

提出了一种带有粗磨区倾角θ的陶瓷结合剂CBN点磨削砂轮,这种新型砂轮具有磨除率高、加工精度好等优点。研究了磨削热产生与分配理论和红外测温原理。分别用不同θ角的砂轮在一系列磨削参数条件下磨削QT700材料的阶梯轴,用Thermovision A40M热像仪测量砂轮磨削工件时接触区的平均温度,得出了偏转角α、磨削深度ap、工件轴向进给速度vf和砂轮速度vs在磨削过程中对磨削温度的影响规律,并且比较了在同一组磨削参数下,三种不同θ角砂轮对磨削温度的影响情况。     

Experimental investigation and numerical analysis for machinability of alumina ceramic by laser-assisted grinding

Alumina (Al₂O₃) ceramic has been widely used in various fields, but it has certain difficulties in machining as a hard and brittle material. While laser-assisted grinding (LAG), an alternative and novel method for fabrication of alumina ceramic, can utilize laser beam to locally heat the workpiece before the ceramic is removed, thereby reducing fracture toughness and keeping the surface integrity. In this paper, a thermal model is established to study and understand the processing mechanism of the LAG process. Meanwhile, an orthogonal experiment is designed and implemented to optimize the grinding process. Then, by analyzing the surface topography, the advantages of LAG are strongly proved. It is found that the temperature modelling results matches experimental results well. The processing parameter that has greatest impact on surface roughness is laser power, followed by grinding depth and wheel speed, and feeding speed at last. The optimal surface roughness value can be obtained by certain processing parameters. Also, compared to conventional grinding (CG), the removal method of alumina ceramics alters from brittle fracture to plastic fracture. Overall, this study clearly elucidates that LAG of alumina ceramic is a very promising machining method, and can be potentially utilized for various industrial, aerospace and automobile applications.     

高速磨削难加工材料的研究进展

高速磨削是实现对难加工材料的高效、优质加工的一种先进加工技术.本文总结了难加工材料高速磨削的相关研究,从磨削力、磨削温度、磨削比能、表面形貌等磨削特性进行探讨.     

An investigation on surface grinding of hardened stainless steel S34700 and aluminum alloy AA6061 using minimum quantity of lubrication (MQL) technique

In grinding process, the abrasives plunge and slide against the workpiece during material removal with high specific energy consumption and high grinding zone temperature. To improve process efficiency, lubrication becomes an important requirement of the grinding fluids, along with chip removal and cooling the grinding zone. Grinding fluids have negative influences on the working environment and machining cost in terms of the health of the machine operator, pollution, the possibility of explosion (for oil), filtering, and waste disposal. The use of minimum quantity of lubrication (MQL) with an extremely low consumption of lubricant has been reported as a technologically and environmentally feasible alternative to flood cooling. This paper deals with an investigation of the grindability of hardened stainless steel (UNS S34700) and aluminum alloy AA6061 using dry, MQL, and conventional fluid techniques. One type of SiC and five types of Al₂O₃ wheels (corundum) as well as vegetable and synthetic ester MQL oils have been tested. The influences of wheel and coolant–lubricant types have been studied on the basis of the grinding forces, surface topography, and surface temperature. Synthetic ester MQL oil was found to give better grinding performance than the vegetable MQL oils. It was argued that the improved performance of the ester oil is caused by the formation of tribo-films on the abrasives and the workpiece, which enhances lubrication by inhibiting metal–abrasive interaction. Also, the grindability of the machined specimens was found to increase substantially by using the MQL grinding process with soft and coarse wheels. In MQL grinding of AA6061 alloy, the use of vegetable oil resulted in the lowest surface roughness, whereas using synthetic ester additives lead to highest surface roughness because of higher chip loading on the grinding wheel and consequently more redeposited material on the workpiece surface.     

Effects of Abrasive Types on Grinding of Chopped Strand Mat Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite Laminates

A grindability study of chopped strand mat glass fiber reinforced polymer laminates (CSM GFRP) has been carried out to evaluate the effects of abrasive types on grinding force ratio and area roughness at varying grinding parameters such as speed, feed and depth of cut. Performances of alumina (Al₂O₃) and cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheels were compared. Both wheels delivered the maximum grinding force ratios at low speed, high feed and low depth of cut. Alumina wheel produced smoother surface when grinding at low speed, low feed and high depth of cut. CBN wheel, on the other hand, gave smoother surface at high feed and low depth of cut conditions, regardless of speed. With CBN wheel, it is likely that a single grinding condition exists that maximizes grinding force ratio and minimizes area roughness. The findings indicate that CBN wheel exhibited higher grinding force ratio than alumina grinding wheel in general. CBN grinding wheel also outperformed alumina grinding wheel by producing smoother ground surface in most cases.     

Experimental investigation on high-efficiency grinding of Inconel 718 with heat pipe grinding wheel

Grinding heat is a significant problem for grinding difficult-to-machine materials such as nickel-based superalloys, which restricts their applications. A majority of existing cooling methods ensure cooling by simply increasing the volume of coolant. However, lubricants often lose efficacy due to film boiling and have adverse health and environment effects. To dissipate grinding heat in the contact zone and guarantee workpiece surface quality, a novel cooling method that dissipates grinding heat assisted by forming rotating heat pipe inside the grinding wheel (HPGW) is proposed. Tests were performed to determine its heat transfer capacity in high-efficiency grinding of Inconel 718 alloy. The results show that grinding with HPGW leads to lower grinding temperatures and lower thermal damages to the workpiece when compared to grinding with non-HPGW. Better heat transfer capacity of HPGW is explained by heat transfer resistance analysis for both grinding wheels. The analysis proves that the value of HPGW is one order of magnitude lower than non-HPGW. Furthermore, in-depth studies of the ground surface showed no changes in microstructure or microhardness for the workpiece when using HPGW, whereas different degrees of burn were seen as indicated by different temper colors and corresponding changes in microstructure and microhardness.     

Grinding of aluminium silicon carbide metal matrix composite materials by electrolytic in-process dressing grinding

The grinding cost of metal matrix composite materials is more due to low removal rates and high rates of wear of super abrasive wheels. This electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) technique uses a metal-bonded grinding wheel that is electrolytically dressed during the grinding process for abrasives that protrude continuously from super abrasive wheels. This research carries out ELID grinding using various current duty ratios and conventional grinding of 10% SiC_p reinforced 2,124 aluminium composite materials. Normal forces and tangential forces are monitored. Surface roughness of the ground surface, Vickers hardness numbers and metal removal rate (MRR) are measured. The results show that the cutting forces in the ELID grinding are unstable throughout the grinding process due to the breakage of an insulating layer formed on the surface of grinding wheel and are less than conventional grinding forces. A smoother surface can be obtained at high current duty ratio in ELID grinding. The micro-hardness is reduced at high current duty ratio. In ELID, the MRR increases at high current duty ratio. The results of this investigation are presented in this paper.     

A NEW TECHNOLOGY ON ENHANCING HEAT TRANSFER AT GRINDING ZONE THROUGH JET IMPINGEMENT DURING CREEP FEED GRINDING

This paper presents a jet-impingement technology to enhance heat transfer at the grinding zone. The jet-impingement technology uses a new apparatus developed to spray grinding fluid onto the workpiece surface at the grinding zone from the radial holes of an electroplated CBN wheel. Because the fluid is sprayed normally on the workpiece surface at the grinding zone, the heat transfer to the fluid is significantly improved as compared to the conventional fluid delivery methods. Experimental results, obtained under both imitated grinding tests and actual creep-feed grinding of titanium alloys, show that the jet-impingement technology lowers grinding temperature significantly. Much higher material removal rates are possible with jet-impingement without workpiece burn.     

二维超声磨削纳米氧化锆陶瓷的磨削力特性研究

对纳米氧化锆陶瓷在二维超声磨削条件下的磨削力进行了理论分析与实验研究,并与相同磨削参数下的普通磨削方式的磨削力进行了比较和分析。研究表明:与普通磨削相比,二维超声磨削可获得椭螺线式的加工轨迹,大大减小了平均磨削力,扩大了纳米陶瓷的塑性加工域,表面质量得到明显的改善。     

FORCE ANALYSIS FOR GRINDING WITH SEGMENTAL WHEELS

This paper describes a force model for grinding with segmental wheels. Both experimental and analytical results show that average grinding force decreases and peak force increases using segmental wheels as compared to conventional wheels. Larger spaces between segments further reduce the average force and increase the peak force. The reduction in average force is due to the size effect whereby the specific energy decreases at higher instantaneous material removal rates. An investigation of surface roughness and wheel wear reveals that modest amounts of segmentation reduce average force without increasing surface roughness or wheel wear.     

FORCE ANALYSIS FOR GRINDING WITH SEGMENTAL WHEELS

This paper describes a force model for grinding with segmental wheels. Both experimental and analytical results show that average grinding force decreases and peak force increases using segmental wheels as compared to conventional wheels. Larger spaces between segments further reduce the average force and increase the peak force. The reduction in average force is due to the size effect whereby the specific energy decreases at higher instantaneous material removal rates. An investigation of surface roughness and wheel wear reveals that modest amounts of segmentation reduce average force without increasing surface roughness or wheel wear.     

有机粘结固体润滑剂涂层砂轮磨削性能研究

采用有机粘结固体润滑剂（六方氮化硼和石墨）制备的涂层砂轮对钛合金进行了干磨削试验,研究了有机粘结固体润滑剂涂层砂轮在不同磨削工艺参数下对钛合金的磨削温度和工件表面质量的影响规律。试验结果表明,所制备的有机粘结固体润滑剂涂层砂轮干磨削钛合金工件时,磨削温度比无润滑剂涂层砂轮干磨削钛合金时下降11%~40%,工件表层显微组织未见明显变化。     

磨削温度对刀剪刃口的影响

砂轮磨削刀剪材料的过程中产生的磨削热是影响刀剪表面质量的重要因素。对磨削热的产生进行了分析 ,讨论了磨削温度对刀剪产品质量的影响 ,提出了正确选择磨削刀剪时的砂轮、冷却方式及磨削量等 ,以确保刀剪产品的磨削质量。     

High efficiency deep grinding with very high removal rates

High efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) achieves very high removal rates with moderate temperature rise. It is shown that key factors are high wheel speeds, large depths of cut and moderately high work speeds. High removal rates in HEDG are associated with very efficient grinding and very low specific energy compared to conventional grinding. Although HEDG-enabled machine tools are available, the wider adoption of HEDG requires confidence that high workpiece surface integrity is achievable and sustainable. HEDG is an aggressive machining process that requires a suitable machine tool and workpiece configuration. System requirements include a high-powered spindle drive motor also capable of high spindle speeds, a stiff machine structure, wear-resistant grinding wheels and high-capacity pressurized lubricant supply. This paper presents advances in the development of HEDG. Results of HEDG obtained using a newly designed and unique machine tool are presented to illustrate achievable removal rates. Specific grinding energies are shown together with grinding temperatures measured directly in the contact arc. An enhanced single-pole thermocouple technique is used to measure the actual contact temperatures in deep cutting for validation of predictions. New findings illustrate the performance of high-speed conventional wheels in HEDG compared with the performance of CBN wheels obtained from actual industrial tests.     

Grindability of high-temperature alloy with ceramic alumina wheels

The grindability of high-temperature alloy by using ceramic alumina wheels is studied on the basis of extensive analysis of the grinding force, grinding temperature, surface roughness and topography of ground surfaces, residual stress, hardness distribution of surface layer, and morphology of the surface layer from a metallographic point of view. The grinding burn mechanism of high-temperature alloy is unveiled and the feasible grinding parameters to avoid burning are analyzed. Some conclusions are obtained as follows. Increasing the grinding depth or the wheel velocity makes grinding temperature and residual tensile stress of the surface rise, which deteriorates the surface topography. Appropriate liner velocity of the wheel is 18–22 m/s and the depth of grinding should not exceed 0.02 mm in grinding GH2132 alloy with ceramic alumina wheels to assure the surface quality. When a _p increases enough to cause grinding burn, the strengthening effect of particles γ′ in γ base decrease and the micro-hardness of the surface is obviously lower than that of the base material, which deteriorates the mechanical properties and heat resistance of GH2132 alloy. Results provide a theoretical and experimental basis for technical optimization in the grinding of high-temperature alloy with high efficiency and high quality.     

Predictive Modeling of Surface Roughness in Grinding of Ceramics

The surface roughness represents the quality of ground surface since irregularities on the surface may form nucleation for cracks or corrosion and thus degrade the mechanical properties of the component. The surface generation mechanism in grinding of ceramic materials could behave as a mixture of plastic flow and brittle fracture, while the extent of the mixture hinges upon certain process parameters and material properties. The resulting surface profile can be distinctively different from these two mechanisms. In this article, a physics-based model is proposed to predict the surface roughness in grinding of ceramic materials considering the combined effect of brittle and ductile material removal. The random distribution of cutting edges is first described by a Rayleigh probability function. Afterwards, surface profile generated by brittle mode grinding is characterized via indentation mechanics approach. Last, the surface roughness is modeled through a probabilistic analysis of ductile and brittle generated surface profile. The model expresses the surface finish as a function of the wheel microstructure, the process conditions, and the material properties. The predictions are compared with experimental results from grinding of silicon carbide and silicon nitride workpieces (SiC and Si₃N₄, respectively) using a diamond wheel.     

微量润滑平面磨削接触区换热机理的研究

磨削接触区材料去除厚度是不一致的,同时,在微量润滑过程中,雾滴之间的运动特征存在差异且易受其他因素的影响,致使整个接触区的磨削温度分布呈现出非线性,换热机理也异常复杂。从雾化机理出发,对影响换热效果的两个关键因素--雾滴直径和雾滴速度进行了分析。依据雾滴在不同壁温处表现出的不同换热特性,将磨削区划分为无沸腾换热、核态沸腾换热、过渡沸腾换热和稳定膜态沸腾换热四个不同的换热区域,建立了微量润滑磨削区的换热系数数学模型。在此基础上,运用有限元技术对微量润滑磨削表面的温度场进行了仿真分析,采用单级热电偶技术测量了磨削温度,发现磨削区仿真温度值与实验测量值吻合较好,表明通过该理论获得的微量润滑磨削表面换热系数是可信的。     

Effect of parameters on grinding forces and energy while grinding Al (A356)/SiC composites

Abstract

Grinding processes require a high energy input per unit volume of material removed, which is converted to heat at the grinding zone, resulting in increased force and wear. In the present study, the influence of grinding parameters like work speed and depth of cut on grinding forces and energy was studied. An attempt has been made to study the forces and energy involved while grinding aluminium alloy (A356)/silicon carbide (SiC) composite material with different grinding wheels. Experiments were carried out on a surface grinding machine. Three different types of wheels like SiC, cubic boron nitride (CBN) and diamond wheels were used. The grinding forces increased with increase in depth of cut and work speed. SiC exhibited high grinding force compared to the CBN wheel. In the case of the diamond wheel, it was even less. The specific grinding energy was highest for the diamond wheel followed by CBN and SiC wheels. The specific grinding energy decreased with increase in depth of cut and work speed.     

超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co涂层的高速磨削机理试验研究

针对超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co高硬涂层的加工难题,对WC-17Co涂层进行了高速/超高速磨削试验。通过考察不同金刚石砂轮和磨削工艺参数对磨削力、磨削温度和表面残余应力、表面/亚表面微观形貌和表面粗糙度的影响,讨论了最大未变形切屑厚度与比磨削能的内在关系,分析了磨削温度对表面残余应力的作用规律,探讨了法向磨削力对涂层亚表面损伤的作用规律。结果表明：WC-17Co涂层磨削去除是脆性和延性去除并存;提高砂轮线速度将使磨削力先快速减小后缓慢增大,磨削温度持续升高,涂层磨削从脆性去除转为延性去除的趋势也逐渐增强,表面残余应力由压应力逐渐转变为拉应力,而磨削高温引起涂层热塑性变形是表面残余应力状态转变的根本原因。涂层亚表面磨削损伤层平均深度随法向磨削力的增大而变大。提高砂轮线速度、降低工作台速度和减小磨削深度均能增大涂层磨削塑性去除的比例。