Adaptive skin color modeling using the skin locus for selecting training pixels

Techniques for color-based tracking of faces or hands often assume a static skin model yet skin color, as measured by a camera, can change when lighting changes. Therefore, for robust skin pixel detection, an adaptive skin color model must be employed. We demonstrate a chromaticity-based constraint to select training pixels in a scene for updating a dynamic skin color model under changing illumination conditions. The method makes use of the ‘skin locus’ of a camera, that is, the area in chromaticity space where skin chromaticity under various lighting and camera calibration conditions is observed. Skin color models derived from the technique are compared with that derived by a common spatial constraint and is shown to be more consistent with manually extracted ground truth skin model per frame even as localization errors increase. The technique is applied to color-based face tracking in indoor and outdoor videos and is shown to succeed more often than other color model adaptation techniques.     

肤色检测技术综述

肤色检测在人脸和手势识别与跟踪、Web图像内容过滤、数据库或因特网中的人物检索和医疗诊断等方面有广泛应用,文中通过分别介绍基于统计和基于物理的两类肤色检测技术,较全面地综述了肤色检测技术,其中对颜色空间选择、静、动态肤色建模方法、肤色反射模型和肤色波谱特性等肤色检测重要环节做了分析,明确了选择颜色空间与特征提取和分类方法的联系,强调了研究肤色波谱特征对基于物理的肤色检测技术的重要性,最后探讨了肤色检测的技术难题和发展趋势。     

基于新颜色空间YCgCr的复杂背景图像下的肤色区域检测

肤色信息在基于彩色图像的手势识别、人脸检测与跟踪和基于内容的不良图像过滤等应用中,起着非常重要的作用.为了有效地检测图像中的肤色区域,采用了类似于YCbCr颜色空间的新颜色空间YCgCr.为了说明YCgCr颜色空间的优越性,给出了该颜色空间与YCbCr颜色空间和Karhunen-Loeve （K-L）变换颜色空间中多样实验操作的比较.实验结果表明,用同样肤色样本得到的肤色阈值对相同的测试图像集进行肤色检测时,YCgCr颜色空间具有很好的肤色区域检测效果,漏检率和误检率均低于其它两个颜色空间的漏检率和误检率,并且对于不同的光照条件有较好的鲁棒性.     

A new dynamic cellular learning automata-based skin detector

Skin detection is a difficult and primary task in many image processing applications. Because of the diversity of various image processing tasks, there exists no optimum method that can perform properly for all applications. In this paper, we have proposed a novel skin detection algorithm that combines color and texture information of skin with cellular learning automata to detect skin-like regions in color images. Skin color regions are first detected, by using a committee structure, from among several explicit boundary skin models. Detected skin-color regions are then fed to a texture analyzer which extracts texture features via their color statistical properties and maps them to a skin probability map. This map is then used by cellular learning automata to adaptively make a decision on skin regions. Conducted experiments show that the proposed algorithm achieves the true positive rate of about 86.3% and the false positive rate of about 9.2% on Compaq skin database which shows its efficiency.     

Robust skin segmentation using color space switching

Skin detection is very popular and has vast applications among researchers in computer vision and human computer interaction. The skin-color changes beyond comparable limits with considerable change in the nature of the light source. Different properties are taken into account when the colors are represented in different color spaces. However, a unique color space has not been found yet to adjust the needs of all illumination changes that can occur to practically similar objects. Therefore a dynamic skin color model must be constructed for robust skin pixel detection, which can cope with natural changes in illumination. This paper purposes that skin detection in a digital color image can be significantly improved by employing automated color space switching. A system with three robust algorithms has been built based on different color spaces towards automatic skin classification in a 2D image. These algorithms are based on the statistical mean of value of the skin pixels in the image. We also take Bayesian approaches to discriminate between skin-alike and non-skin pixels to avoid noise. This work is tested on a set of images which was captured in varying light conditions from highly illuminated to almost dark.     

基于彩色人脸模板的人脸检测算法

针对目前基于色彩的人脸检测只能用于人脸区域的粗检这一不足,提出一种利用人脸的五官位置及色彩信息建立彩色人脸模板的算法。采用光照补偿对图像进行预处理,利用YCbCr空间中的肤色模型进行粗检,确定出人脸候选区域,利用建构好的模板进行搜索比对定位出人脸。实验结果表明该方法对不同光照环境和复杂背景的图片均有较好的适应性,检测精度也得到了提高。     

复杂背景中的人脸检测与定位

基于人类视觉机制,描述了一种由粗到细的复杂背景中的人脸检测方法。其基本思想是首先粗略定出人脸可能存在的区域,然后在可能的区域内进一步细致匹配,以证实人脸的存在并对其进行准确定位。在粗略检测中利用人脸的肤色分布统计模型将人脸从背景中分割出来;在准确定位中联合人脸的肤色分布统计模型、发色分布统计模型以及不同方向的头部模型,用模糊模式匹配的方法进行准确定位。实验结果表明该方法比在复杂背景中直接利用肤色信息检测人脸的方法速度快,准确率高,鲁棒性好。     

Color based skin classification

Skin detection is used in applications ranging from face detection, tracking body parts and hand gesture analysis, to retrieval and blocking objectionable content. In this paper, we investigate and evaluate (1) the effect of color space transformation on skin detection performance and finding the appropriate color space for skin detection, (2) the role of the illuminance component of a color space, (3) the appropriate pixel based skin color modeling technique and finally, (4) the effect of color constancy algorithms on color based skin classification. The comprehensive color space and skin color modeling evaluation will help in the selection of the best combinations for skin detection. Nine skin modeling approaches (AdaBoost, Bayesian network, J48, Multilayer Perceptron, Naive Bayesian, Random Forest, RBF network, SVM and the histogram approach of Jones and Rehg (2002)) in six color spaces (IHLS, HSI, RGB, normalized RGB, YCbCr and CIELAB) with the presence or absence of the illuminance component are compared and evaluated. Moreover, the impact of five color constancy algorithms on skin detection is reported. Results on a database of 8991 images with manually annotated pixel-level ground truth show that (1) the cylindrical color spaces outperform other color spaces, (2) the absence of the illuminance component decreases performance, (3) the selection of an appropriate skin color modeling approach is important and that the tree based classifiers (Random forest, J48) are well suited to pixel based skin detection. As a best combination, the Random Forest combined with the cylindrical color spaces, while keeping the illuminance component outperforms other combinations, and (4) the usage of color constancy algorithms can improve skin detection performance.     

基于新颜色空间YCgCr的人脸区域初定位

在RGB颜色空间采用了颜色平衡方法对发生色彩偏移的输入图像进行颜色校正;在新颜色空间YCgCr上建立了亮度和Cg-Cr色度查找表联合的肤色模型,对肤色区域进行检测;引入了有效的预处理技术,进一步去除肤色分割后的二值图像中的部分非人脸区域,减少人脸定位的搜索区域。最后在两个图像测试集上进行了实验比较,实验结果表明,该肤色模型可以有效地从复杂背景的彩色图像中检测出肤色区域,光照条件适应性好,且引入的预处理技术在保证漏检率低的前提下,能够去除大部分非人脸区域。     

自适应模型和固定模型结合的肤色分割算法

由于受环境、光照、人种等因素影响,不同图像中的肤色分布并不一样。在复杂背景情况下,采用固定的阈值边界模型进行肤色分割将导致较大的漏检或误检。基于YCbCr颜色空间,在固定阈值边界模型分割的基础上,运用简化的期望最大化(EM)算法计算出针对特定图像的自适应肤色高斯模型;然后综合考虑固定阈值边界模型以及自适应肤色高斯模型在不同颜色区域上划分的准确性,给出最终的肤色分割结果。实验结果表明,该方法相比固定阈值边界模型的分割方法,能同时降低误检率和漏检率,从而提高肤色识别的准确率。     

一种基于肤色模型和模板匹配的人脸检测算法

近年来,随着人机识别技术的日益发展,人脸检测问题越来越受到重视,而人脸检测技术的关键在于准确率和检测速度.为了有效提高人脸检测的效率,提出了一种基于肤色分割和模板匹配算法的人脸检测方法.首先,建立颜色模型,利用颜色信息对图像进行粗检测,得到粗检测结果,然后,采用模板匹配技术确定人脸.该算法克服了单用模板匹配法的时间延迟,提高了检测精度和速度.     

Statistical skin color detection method without color transformation for real-time surveillance systems

Skin color is the significant information for many emerging applications in surveillance systems. However, the common skin color models usually need to perform color space transformation. This is not suitable for direct hardware implementation. This paper develops a statistical skin color model using the default RGB color space, which is especially suitable to implement on hardware for image processing applications. Moreover, an efficient face detection system is also proposed with our skin color model for hardware implementation. Compared with other skin color models, the proposed model produces the highest detection rate. Furthermore, the extended face detection system also significantly decreases the computational cost of the hardware implementation based on our skin color model. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed detection system can be easily implemented on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), where only 3202 logic cells is occupied with the high detection rate.     

自动分块亮度校正算法及仿真研究

光照是人脸图像的成像条件之一,在人脸成像过程中具有很大的灵活性.由于拍摄照片过程中光照条件或观察角度的不同,导致人脸识别算法的性能明显下降.基于传统的区域校正思想提出了一种自动分块亮度校正算法,自动提取过亮块和过暗块并对其进行亮度校正.以彩色图像人脸数据库为例,快速、准确地得到亮度校正图像.仿真实验表明,将该算法校正恢复出的图像用于人脸识别,可以提高人脸识别率,具有一定的应用价值.     

复杂光照下的人脸肤色检测方法

复杂光照对人脸肤色检测具有重要影响。在YCbCr颜色空间建立复杂光照条件下的人脸肤色模型,然后利用该模型检测人脸图像的肤色区域,并对检测结果利用4-连通区域的几何特征消除非人脸区域,最后利用连通元复原误检的人脸肤色区域。实验结果表明,该方法可以实现复杂光照下人脸肤色区域的准确检测。     

Face localization using fuzzy classifier with wavelet-localized focus color features and shape features

This paper proposes a new fuzzy classifier (FC)-based face localization approach. The FC used is a self-organizing TS-type fuzzy network with support vector learning (SOTFN-SV). The SOTFN-SV learns consequent parameters using a linear support vector machine to improve generalization ability. The FC is first applied to segment human skin pixels in scaled hue and saturation (hS) color space, after which connected skin-color regions are regarded as face candidates. The FC is then applied to detect and localize faces from the candidates. The proposed FC-based face localization approach uses shape and wavelet-localized focus color features. A best fitting ellipse of each face candidate is found to obtain shape features. Focus color features are extracted from four focus regions, including the two eyes, the mouth, and the face skin-color region. To find these focus color regions, the Haar-wavelet transformation is first applied to the face candidates in the YCb color space to localize all possible pairs of eye candidates. The mouth region is then localized according to its geometric relationship with the eyes. The hS color features of the located eyes, mouth, and face skin are extracted. These focus color features, together with shape features, serve as inputs to another FC for final face localization. Comparisons with various classifiers and face detection methods demonstrate the advantage of the FC-based skin color segmentation and face localization method.     

YCbCr空间中一种基于贝叶斯判决的肤色检测方法

皮肤颜色是人脸检测、定位、跟踪时的一种十分有效的特征,而且裸露的皮肤区域也是色情图像的最重要特征之一.为了有效地进行图像的皮肤检测,提出了一种新的肤色检测方法.该方法首先通过统计1809 502个肤色像素点和1763682个非肤色像素点,并使用贝叶斯规则来建立肤色分类器;然后考虑亮度对肤色的影响,采用Y-Cb和Y-Cr两个子空间的查询表来建立肤色模型.为了联合使用两个查询表,先采用高斯归一化和线性化方法来将阈值范围调整至[0,1];同时对查询表进行中值滤波处理,以除去离散孤立点.实验表明,与其他3种方法相比,该方法不仅有着较低的漏检率（9.814%）和误检率（3.5%）,而且对于不同光照条件也有较好的检测效果.     

Skin color-based video segmentation under time-varying illumination

A novel approach for real-time skin segmentation in video sequences is described. The approach enables reliable skin segmentation despite wide variation in illumination during tracking. An explicit second order Markov model is used to predict evolution of the skin-color (HSV) histogram over time. Histograms are dynamically updated based on feedback from the current segmentation and predictions of the Markov model. The evolution of the skin-color distribution at each frame is parameterized by translation, scaling, and rotation in color space. Consequent changes in geometric parameterization of the distribution are propagated by warping and resampling the histogram. The parameters of the discrete-time dynamic Markov model are estimated using Maximum Likelihood Estimation and also evolve over time. The accuracy of the new dynamic skin color segmentation algorithm is compared to that obtained via a static color model. Segmentation accuracy is evaluated using labeled ground-truth video sequences taken from staged experiments and popular movies. An overall increase in segmentation accuracy of up to 24 percent is observed in 17 out of 21 test sequences. In all but one case, the skin-color classification rates for our system were higher, with background classification rates comparable to those of the static segmentation.     

Systematic skin segmentation: merging spatial and non-spatial data

Skin detection is used in applications ranging from face detection, tracking of body parts, hand gesture analysis, to retrieval and blocking objectionable content. We present a systematic approach for robust skin segmentation using graph cuts. The skin segmentation process starts by exploiting the local skin information of detected faces. The detected faces are used as foreground seeds for calculating the foreground weights of the graph. If local skin information is not available, we opt for the universal seed. To increase the robustness, the decision tree based classifier is used to augment the universal seed weights when no local information is available in the image. With this setup, we achieve robust skin segmentation, outperforming off-line trained classifiers. The setup also provides a generic skin detection system, using positive training data only. With face detection, we take advantage of the contextual information present in the scene. With the weight augmentation, we provide a setup for merging spatial and non-spatial data. Experiments on two datasets with annotated pixel-level ground truth show that the systematic skin segmentation approach outperforms other approaches and provides robust skin detection.     

基于颜色和特征匹配的视频图像人脸检测实现技术

A face detection method using statistical skin-color model and facial feature matching is presented in this paper.According to skin-color distribution in YUV color space,we develope a statistical skin-color model through interactive sample training and learning.Using this method we convert the color image to binary image and then segment face-candidate regions in the video images.In order to improve the quality of binary image and remove unwanted noises,filtering and mathematical morphology are empolied.After these two processing,we use facial feature matching for further detection.The presence or absence of a face in each region is verified by means of mouth detector based on a template matching method.The experimental results show the proposed method has the features of high speed and high efficiency,but also robust to face variation to some extent.So it is suitable to be applied to real-time face detection and tracking in video sequences.