Analysis of the machining accuracy when dry turning via experiments and finite element simulations

Workpiece and tool are subjected to severe mechanical and thermal loads when turning. These loads cause thermal expansions and mechanically induced deflections of the tool and the workpiece. Such deformations induce deviations from the nominal workpiece geometry. In order to decrease these deviations, the cutting condition needs to be optimized prior to actual machining. In this paper, the accuracy of machining when dry turning aluminum is analyzed via experiments and finite element simulations. For this purpose, seven characteristic values were used: the forces, the deflection of the workpiece, the quantity of heat in the workpiece, the temperature distribution in the workpiece, the temperature of the tool, the temperature of the tool holder, and the actual dimension of the workpiece after turning. These experimentally determined results serve in addition as boundary conditions for a 3D finite element model of the workpiece, which calculates the deformations of the workpiece. The continuous removal of material affecting the temperature distribution in the workpiece is considered. The actual dimensions of the workpiece after turning revealed a remarkable influence of the cutting condition used on the accuracy of machining. Differences of up to 116 μm regarding the deviation from the nominal workpiece diameter of 30 mm were observed. The analysis of the machining accuracy reveals that particularly the use of both high cutting speeds and feeds enhances the accuracy of machining when dry turning aluminum.     

Dimensional errors in longitudinal turning based on the unified generalized mechanics of cutting approach.: Part I: Three-dimensional theory

During the machining of a part, a new surface is generated together with its dimensional deviations. These deviations are due to the presence of several phenomena (workpiece deflection under strong cutting forces, vibration of the machine tool, material spring-back, and so on) that occur during machining. Each elementary phenomenon results in an elementary machining error. Consequently, the accuracy of the manufactured workpiece depends on the precision of the manufacturing process, which it may be controlled or predicted.The first part of this work presents a new model to evaluate machining accuracy and part dimensional errors in bar turning. A model to simulate workpiece dimensional errors in longitudinal turning due to deflection of the tool, workpiece holder and workpiece is shown. The proposed model calculates the real cutting force according to the Unified Generalized Mechanics of Cutting approach proposed by Armarego, which allows one to take into account the three-dimensional nature (3D) of the cutting mechanism. Therefore, the model developed takes advantage of the real workpiece deflection, which does not lie in a plane parallel to the tool reference plane, and of the real 3D cutting force, which varies along the tool path due to change in the real depth of cut. In the first part of the work the general theory of the proposed approach is presented and discussed for 3D features. In the second part the proposed approach is applied to real cases that are mostly used in practice. Moreover, some experimental tests are carried out in order to validate the developed model: good agreement between numerical and experimental results is found.     

Statistical analysis of surface roughness and cutting forces using response surface methodology in hard turning of AISI 52100 bearing steel with CBN tool

The present work concerns an experimental study of hard turning with CBN tool of AISI 52100 bearing steel, hardened at 64 HRC. The main objectives are firstly focused on delimiting the hard turning domain and investigating tool wear and forces behaviour evolution versus variations of workpiece hardness and cutting speed. Secondly, the relationship between cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut) and machining output variables (surface roughness, cutting forces) through the response surface methodology (RSM) are analysed and modeled. The combined effects of the cutting parameters on machining output variables are investigated while employing the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The quadratic model of RSM associated with response optimization technique and composite desirability was used to find optimum values of machining parameters with respect to objectives (surface roughness and cutting force values). Results show how much surface roughness is mainly influenced by feed rate and cutting speed. Also, it is underlined that the thrust force is the highest of cutting force components, and it is highly sensitive to workpiece hardness, negative rake angle and tool wear evolution. Finally, the depth of cut exhibits maximum influence on cutting forces as compared to the feed rate and cutting speed.     

Hybrid machining of Inconel 718

A new approach for machining of Inconel 718 is presented in this paper. It combines traditional turning with cryogenically enhanced machining and plasma enhanced machining. Cryogenically enhanced machining is used to reduce the temperatures in the cutting tool, and thus reduces temperature-dependent tool wear to prolong tool life, whereas plasma enhanced machining is used to increase the temperatures in the workpiece to soften it. By joining these two non-traditional techniques with opposite effects on the cutting tool and the workpiece, it has been found that the surface roughness was reduced by 250%; the cutting forces was decreased by approximately 30–50%; and the tool life was extended up to 170% over conventional machining.     

An experimental evaluation of coefficients of static friction of common workpiece–fixture element pairs

Most machining fixtures utilize clamping forces and friction at fixture–workpiece joints to help prevent the workpiece from slipping out of the fixture during machining. The magnitudes of the clamping forces required are a direct function of the coefficients of static friction at the joints. Recently, analytical methods have been developed to predict minimum clamping forces. However, these methods require accurate estimates of the friction coefficients.One source of friction data are handbooks. However, these data are typically listed relative to the materials of the contacting elements and are otherwise completely generalized. This paper will illustrate that the coefficient of static friction for typical fixture–workpiece joints is not a simple function of the workpiece materials. Instead it is also a function of factors such as fixture element geometry, workpiece surface topography, clamping forces, the presence or absence of cutting fluids, and normal joint rigidity.     

A mesoplasticitiy analysis of cutting friction in ultra-precision machining

The control and minimization of cutting force variation is of prime importance in obtaining a consistent surface finish and form accuracy of a machined workpiece in ultra-precision machining. However, most continuum theories do not take into account the effect of crystallographic anisotropy that causes variation in the shear plane at the grain level and hence of the cutting force. The periodicity of the fluctuation of cutting forces is found to be dependent on the frictional condition during cutting. However, investigation of the in situ relationships among the cutting friction, the crystallographic orientation of workpiece and the periodic fluctuation of cutting forces has received relatively little attention. In this paper, a mesoplasticity approach is proposed to access the crystallographic and frictional effect on the fluctuation of micro-cutting forces in diamond turning of crystalline materials. The predictions were able to explain the experimental results based on the power spectrum analysis of the cutting force variation. The research findings throw light on the possibility of an indirect in situ assessment of the frictional condition in ultra-precision machining.     

Improvement of machining conditions for slender parts by tuned dynamic stiffness of tool

Chatter develops easily when turning slender parts on a lathe because of low stiffness and damping of the system. Also, due to a great variation of the stiffness along the workpiece, the machining accuracy is usually very poor. An analysis of the system characteristics is given and a two degrees of freedom model is developed considering parameters of the cutting process. The effective stiffness of the cutting process can be modeled as a spring during machining and its constants can be obtained by frequency analysis of the cutting system. After modeling the system it is found that by adding a damping element in series with the cutting tool and by a judicious choice of the stiffness of this element, the system stability can be increased even though the actual stiffness of the cutting tool is reduced. It can be seen also that significant benefits in terms of both dynamic behavior and machining accuracy (cylindricity) can be achieved in many cases if proper damping materials are used in judiciously designed embodiments.     

Specific machining forces and resultant force vectors for machining of reinforced plastics

When machining fiber reinforced plastics, the machining forces may induce workpiece damage if they exceed the workpiece's anisotropic strength values. Knowledge of the resultant force vectors is therefore important to allow optimization of tool geometry and machining strategy. This article deals with experimentally obtained machining forces on short glass fiber reinforced polyester. Specific cutting, passive and axial forces have been determined for varied parameters of cutting velocity, cutting depth, cutting edge rounding and tool inclination. Generic multivariate regression models have been calculated, which, implemented in a kinematic simulation, allow calculation of machining forces (and direction) for arbitrary milling operations.     

KDP晶体切入角度对切削力和表面粗糙度影响试验

KDP晶体具有各向异性,使得沿不同晶向切入时切削力的大小和作用效果发生改变,进而可能影响表面质量。利用高精度三向测力仪搭建了KDP切削力测试平台,对其沿不同晶向的切削力进行了测试。结果表明:切削力沿特定的角度呈一定的规律分布,与理论计算有一定的吻合,同时表面粗糙度值在不同的晶向也呈典型的周期分布。在切削力测试基础上,开展了表面粗糙度优化试验,在50 mm×50 mm工件上实现了S_q1.8 nm的超光滑表面加工。     

Experimental investigation and simulation of machining thin-walled workpieces

An enhanced simulation model is presented in this paper to predict form deviations in end milling processes of thin-walled structures. The calculation of tool engagement is based on level curves representing surface geometry of the workpiece and the NC code driven sweep volume. To consider influences of force-induced deflections resulting in static form errors on machined surface of the workpiece, a model for superposed stresses is enclosed. Derived from the tool engagement, the cutting force is predicted using a parametric force model. The experimental investigations within the measuring of static and dynamic form errors during processing and afterwards are shown and measurement results are compared with results of the cutting simulation to verify the proposed method. The presented achievements are deduced from research activities aiming at an increased understanding of shape deviation induced by interactions between tool, workpiece and clamping device during machining.     

Effect of direction of parameterization on cutting forces and surface error in machining curved geometries

The present paper investigates the effect of two variables, namely direction of parameterization and cutter diameter on process geometry, cutting forces, and surface error in peripheral milling of curved geometries. In machining of curved geometries where the curvature varies continuously along tool path, the process geometry variables, namely feed per tooth, engagement angle, and maximum undeformed chip thickness too vary along tool path. These variations will be different when a given geometry is machined from different parametric directions and with different cutter diameters. This difference in process geometry variations result in changed cutting forces and surface error along machined path. This aspect has been studied for variable curvature geometries by machining from both parametric directions and using cutters of different diameter. The computer simulation studies carried out show considerable amount of shift in the location of peak cutting forces with the change in cutting direction and cutter diameter, particularly in concave regions of workpiece geometry. A new parameter γ that relates the instantaneous curvature of workpiece with cutter radius is defined. The larger value of γ is an indicator of greater shift in the location of peak forces from the point of maximum curvature on the workpiece. The simulation results are validated by carrying out machining experiments with curved workpiece geometry and are found to be in good agreement.     

Predictive modeling of machining residual stresses considering tool edge effects

The surface integrity of machined components is defined by several characteristics, of which residual stress is extremely important. Residual stress is known to have an effect on critical mechanical properties such as fatigue life, corrosion cracking resistance, and dimensional tolerance of machined components. Among the factors that affect residual stress in machined parts are cutting parameters and tool geometry. This paper presents a method of modeling residual stress for hone-edge cutting tools in turning. The model utilizes analytical cutting force models in conjunction with an approximate algorithm for elastic–plastic rolling/sliding contact. Oxley’s cutting force model is coupled with a slip line model proposed by Waldorf to estimate the cutting forces, which are in turn used to estimate the stress distribution between the tool and the workpiece. A rolling/sliding contact model, which captures kinematic hardening, is used to predict the machining residual stresses. Additionally, a moving heat source model is applied to determine the temperature rise in the workpiece due to the cutting forces. The model predictions are compared with experimental data for the turning of AISI 52100. Force predictions compare well with experimental results. Similarly, the predicted residual stress distributions correlate well with the measured residual stresses in terms of magnitude of stresses and depth of penetration.     

车削残余应力方向性实验

为了了解车削残余应力分布方向性规律,对调质处理和淬火处理的45号钢进行精、粗车削加工,然后测量和观察不同试样的残余应力圆周分布特点,了解材料力学性能和切削条件对残余应力方向性的影响。研究结果显示:残余应力分布具有方向性,车削残余应力轴向最大,切向最小;残余应力方向性主要由机械效应决定,热效应影响不大;残余应力不同方向的大小和变动率受工件材料力学性能和加工条件影响;轴向残余应力对车削工件影响最大。     

细长轴车削与磨削参数优化研究

针对细长轴车削和磨削加工参数的选择问题,建立以工件刚度、刀片强度、刀杆刚度、机床进给机构强度、机床功率、机床参数、加工表面粗糙度、加工余量等作为约束条件,以切削速度、进给量、背吃刀量、工件转速、磨削余量、径向进给量等参数为优化变量,以车、磨多工序成本最低为目标的切削参数优化模型。以某型号电机轴为案例,运用MATLAB模式搜索工具箱对其车削和磨削参数进行寻优,与切削参数的传统选择方法比较表明,工序成本可降低35%以上,从而验证了优化模型的有效性。     

Development of a modular dynamometer for triaxial cutting force measurement in turning

Accurate and reliable measurement of cutting forces in turning is essential for tool geometry, tool trajectory and cutting parameters optimization, as well as for tool condition monitoring and machinabilty testing. In this work, an innovative dynamometer for triaxial cutting force measurement in turning, specifically designed to be applied at a milling-turning CNC machine tool endowed with an indexable head, is presented. The device is based on a piezoelectric force ring integrated into a commercial toolshank, and its modular design allows the easy change of the cutting insert without altering sensor preload. The prototype device was assembled and experimentally tested by means of static calibration and dynamic identification, which evidenced good static and dynamic characteristics. Eventually, the sensor was tested in operating conditions by machining a benchmark workpiece.     

Application of the analytic hierarchy process for estimating the state of tool wear

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), being a simple, but powerful decision-making tool, is being applied to solve different manufacturing problems. In this work, the AHP is applied to estimate the state of the cutting tool during the machining of a medium carbon steel workpiece with coated carbide inserts. Three components of cutting forces are used to judge whether the tool is sharp, workable, or worn out. It is observed during the classification of the tool condition that the AHP assesses the state of the turning tool with reasonably good accuracy.     

Generalized dynamic model of metal cutting operations

This paper presents a unified mathematical model which allows the prediction of chatter stability for multiple machining operations with defined cutting edges. The normal and friction forces on the rake face are transformed to edge coordinates of the tool. The dynamic forces that contain vibrations between the tool and workpiece are transformed to machine tool coordinates with parameters that are set differently for each cutting operation and tool geometry. It is shown that the chatter stability can be predicted simultaneously for multiple cutting operations. The application of the model to single-point turning and multi-point milling is demonstrated with experimental results.     

Turning long workpieces by changing the machining parameters

The paper represents a method for computerized determination of optimum cutting variables on turning machines. The method takes into consideration the variation of static stiffness of the machine-workpiece system along the workpiece axis. The systems stiffness has great influence on machining accuracy when cutting long workpieces L/D > 6. Mathematical models have been derived and tested by numerical examples solved on computer by using the gradient method. The paper also discusses the application of this method through Adaptive Control System.     

An experimental investigation on effect of minimum quantity lubrication in machining AISI 1040 steel

The growing demands for high productivity of machining need use of high cutting velocity and feed rate. Such machining inherently produces high cutting temperature, which not only reduces tool life but also impairs the product quality. Application of cutting fluids changes the performance of machining operations because of their lubrication, cooling, and chip flushing functions. But the conventional cutting fluids are not that effective in such high production machining, particularly in continuous cutting of materials likes steels. Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) presents itself as a viable alternative for turning with respect to tool wear, heat dissipation, and machined surface quality. This study compares the mechanical performance of MQL to completely dry lubrication for the turning of AISI-1040 steel based on experimental measurement of cutting temperature, chip reduction coefficient, cutting forces, tool wears, surface finish, and dimensional deviation. Results indicated that the use of near dry lubrication leads to lower cutting temperature and cutting force, favorable chip–tool interaction, reduced tool wears, surface roughness, and dimensional deviation.     

Modeling of cutting forces in near dry machining under tool wear effect

A predictive model for the cutting forces in near dry machining, in which only a small amount of cutting fluid is used, is developed based on considerations of both the lubricating effect and the cooling effect. For the lubricating effect, with the material properties, lubricating parameters, and cutting conditions, the friction coefficient in near dry machining is calculated based on the boundary lubrication model for use in a modified Oxley's approach to determine the cutting forces. For the cooling effect in near dry machining, a moving heat source method is pursued to quantify the primary-zone shear deformation heating, the secondary-zone friction heating, and flank face air–oil mixture cooling. These two effects are considered collectively to estimate cutting forces under the condition of sharp tools. The predicted variables of flow stress, contact length, and shear angle obtained from the model are used to predict the cutting forces due to the tool flank wear effect based on Waldorf's model. Comparisons are made between predicted and experimental cutting forces for sharp tools and worn tools in the cutting of AISI 1045 with uncoated carbide tools. The results show that the proposed model provides average prediction errors of 14% in the tangential cutting force direction, 21% in the axial directions, and 30% in the radial directions within the experimental test condition range (cutting speeds of 45.75–137.25 m/min, feeds 0.0508–0.1016 mm/rev, and depth of cuts 0.508–1.016 mm). It is also found that the cutting forces in near dry machining are generally lower than those under dry machining condition. Under cutting speeds of 91.5 and 137.25 m/min, the deviations of the predicted forces between near dry machining and dry machining range from 5% to 39% for axial cutting forces, 3% to 36% for radial cutting forces, and 1% to 32% for tangential cutting forces. It suggests that the lubricating mechanism has a stronger effect on cutting forces than the cooling mechanism when cutting AISI 1045 with uncoated carbide tools.