Der Einfluß der EWG-Gesetzgebung und -Rechtsprechung auf Verwendung und Einsatz von Fetten aus lebensmittelrechtlicher Sicht

The Influence of EEC Legislation and Court Decisions on the Use of Fats under Food Law EEC product legislation to date takes hardly any account of the significance of fat as an important food. In the field of horizontal legislation, the labelling Directive regulates the use of oil and fat as category names in the list of ingredients. The Directive on dietetic foods stipulates that the total fat content of a dietetic food must be stated in the list of nutrients. For other foods a standardisation of voluntary statements of food values is being prepared. The ?Cassis”? judgement of the European Court of Justice was and still is of considerable influence. As the result of a judgement passed on Belgian law, the German legislature has repealed the regulations concerning the shape of margarine packs and has now, finally, given clearance to the ?butter shape''. The raising of the prohibition of milk substitute products for import trade will also have consequences for German producers, at least in some sectors. The EC umbrella organisations of the dairy and margarine industries propose structuring the market for yellow spreading fats at EEC level. Consideration is also being given to the use of vegetable fat in the manufacture of ice cream. The prohibition relating to the addition of extraneous fat to chocolate could become the subject of further proceedings before the European Court of Justice. In the case of other food products, e. g. bakery goods, sauce hollandaise and sausage, the effects of incorporating vegetable fat on the product name is the subject of disputes before national courts, during which the influence of European law is becoming ever stronger.     

„Halbfettmargarine”︁ und das neue Margarinegesetz

“Half Fat Margarine” and the New Margarine Legislation The new margarine law dated 28th May 1974 ammending the previous legislation legally permits the sale of a low calory spread on vegetable fat basis (“Half Fat Margarine”) in the Federal Republic of Germany. This law also provides a new definition of margarine, in addition to clauses that are applicable to half fat margarine. The regulations of the new legislation are explained. Moreover, the official regulations of various countries are given, in which the so called “low fat spreads” are already in market. Furthermore, another regulation concerning similar products on milk fat basis, which came into force almost simultaneously, is discussed.     

Fettsäurenaufnahme des Menschen und Möglichkeiten der Beeinflussung durch die Tierernährung

Fatty acid intake of men and possibilities to influence the intake by animal nutrition. About 70% of total fat intake (≈ 100 g per person per day) are from fat of animal origin in Germany. Animal nutrition may influence fat content and fatty acid pattern in animal products. This paper summarizes the influence of feeding on fatty acid pattern of meat (pork, beef, poultry, rabbit, fish), milk and eggs. Fatty acid intake is demonstrated under consideration of fat intake of men and variation of fatty acid pattern of various fats of animal origin. Daily fat intake of men amounted to 43 g saturated, 37 g monoen and 13 g polyen fatty acids. It may vary between 38 and 46 g saturated, 33 and 45 g monoen and 11 and 17 g polyen fatty acids if variation of fatty acid pattern of animal fats is considered. By combination of lower fat intake and changed fatty acid pattern of animal products fatty acid intake may be changed to more monoen and polyen fatty acids.     

Möglichkeiten der Fettchemie für die Schmiermittelindustrie

Feasibilities of the Fat Chemistry for the Lubricant Industry Animal and vegetable fats and oils have been used for centuries as lubricants. Only the industrialization and motorization led to an immense increase of the consumption of the lubricants which amount today about 1.3 million tons a year only in the Federal Republic of Germany. The mineral oil represents now the most important raw material. Therefore the question arises what contribution the fat chemistry can give today for the lubricant industry to accomplish its various tasks. Feasibilities of the fat chemistry to refine oils and fats furtheron to suitable formulation components for the lubricant industry are pointed out. Thereby actual problems and development tendencies are discussed, which are correlated with the matter of lubricants and are nowadays generally discussed.     

Storage stability of margarines produced from enzymatically interesterified fats compared to those prepared by conventional methods – Chemical properties

In this study, four margarine hardstocks were produced, two from enzymatically interesterified fats at 80 and 100% conversion, one from chemically randomized fat and one from physically mixed fat. These four hardstocks, blended with 50% sunflower oil, were mainly used for the production of table margarines in a pilot plant. Storage stability studies were carried out at storage temperatures of 5 and 25 °C for 12 wk. Margarines from the enzymatically interesterified fats were compared to the margarines produced by the conventional methods (chemical interesterification and physical blending) and to selected commercial margarines. The changes in the chemical properties of the products, including peroxide values (PV), tocopherols, free fatty acids, volatile oxidation products, and sensory evaluation, were examined during storage. It was observed that the margarine produced from the chemically interesterified fat had higher PV in weeks 4, 8 and 10 than the margarines produced from the enzymatically interesterified fats and the physically blended fat. These differences were not caused by different contents of tocopherols in the hardstocks. The differences between the processes for chemical and enzymatic interesterification, including further treatment stages, might be responsible for the development of a high PV in the margarine produced from the chemically interesterified fat. However, the contents of volatiles did not show the same tendency as observed for PV for the margarines stored at 25 °C during 12 wk. Storage at 25 °C accelerated oxidation compared to storage at 5 °C. The content of δ‐ and γ‐tocopherols decreased faster than the content of α‐ and β‐tocopherols during storage. This phenomenon was only affected by storage time, not by storage temperature. Sensory analysis did not show consistent differences between the produced margarines and commercial margarines, and no hydrolysis occurred for these four margarines during storage. The margarines produced from the enzymatically interesterified fats had low PV and a similar taste and smell compared to the margarine produced from the chemically interesterified fat.     

Content and distribution oftrans-18:1 acids in ruminant milk and meat fats. Their importance in european diets and their effect on human milk

Thetrans-18:1 acid content and distribution in fats from ewe and goat milk, beef meat and tallow were determined by a combination of capillary gas-liquid chromatography and argentation thin-layer chromatography of fatty acid isopropyl esters. Thetrans isomers account for 4.5 ± 1.1% of total fatty acids in ewe milk fat (seven samples) and 2.7±0.9% in goat milk fat (eight samples). In both species, as in cow, the main isomer is vaccenic (trans-11 18:1) acid. The distribution profile oftrans-18:1 acids is similar among the three species. The contribution of ewe and goat milk fat to the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids was estimated for people from southern countries of the European Economic Community (EEC): France, Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. It is practically negligible for most of these countries, but in Greece, ewe and goat milk fat contributeca. 45% of the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids from all dairy products (0.63 g/person/day for a total of 1.34 g/person/day). Thetrans-18:1 acid contents of beef meat fat (ten retail cuts, lean part) and tallow (two samples) are 2.0 ± 0.9% and 4.6%, respectively, of total fatty acids (animals slaughtered in winter). Here too, the main isomer is vaccenic acid. Othertrans isomers have a distribution pattern similar to that of milk fat. Beef meat fat contributes less than one-tenth of milk fat to thetrans-18:1 acid consumed. The daily per capita intake oftrans-18:1 acids from ruminant fats is 1.3–1.8 g for people from most countries of the EEC, Spain and Portugal being exceptions (ca. 0.8 g/person/day). In France, the respective contributions of ruminant fats and margarines to the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids are 1.7 and 1.1 g/person/day (60 and 40% of total, respectively). These proportions, based on consumption data, were confirmed by the analysis of fat from milk of French women (ten subjects). The mean content oftrans-18:1 acids in human milk is 2.0 ± 0.6%, with vaccenic acid being the major isomer. Based on the relative levels of thetrans-16 18:1 isomer, we could confirm that milk fat is responsible for the major part of the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids by French people. The daily individual intake oftrans-18:1 isomers from both ruminant fats and margarines for the twelve EEC countries varies from 1.5 g in Spain to 5.8 g in Denmark, showing a well-marked gradient from the southwest to the northeast of the EEC.     

Zum täglichen Verzehr trans-isomerer Fettsäuren Eine Kalkulation unter Zugrundelegung der Zusammensetzung handelsüblicher Fette und verschiedener menschlicher Depotfette

Daily Consumption of trans-Isomeric Fatty Acids - A Calculation Based on Composition of Commercial Fats and of Various Human Depot Fats When highly efficient and selective packed columns (Silar 10C, SP 2340) are used in the gas chromatographic analysis of cis/trans-isomeric fatty acids present in partially hydrogenated fats for human consumption, the measurements of the relative trans-octadecenate content are regularly too low by several percent in favor of the respective cis-octadecenate fraction. This methodological error is due to the fact that the heterogeneity of the trans-component is greater than that of the cis-fraction with regard to the positional isomers present. It is assumed that the ingestion of trans-octadecenate with food averages 4.5 g to 6.4 g per capita and day in Western Germany. This assumption is based on individual fatty acid analyses performed on a total of 110 different brands of fat purchased in 1973/74 and again in 1976, on the individual market share of these fats, and on the average consumption of fat including ruminant products. Approximately 35% to 45% of the above amount are taken up with ruminant products, the main part results from the ingestion of partially hardened fats. The value determined for the ingestion of trans-fatty acids correlates relatively well with a mean trans-octadecenate content of 2% (1.0-4.3%) measured post mortem in the subcutaneous, mesenterial, perirenal and subepicardial adipose tissue of 16 males of normal weight.     

Validation of a gas‐chromatographic method for the determination of milk fat contents in mixed fats by butyric acid analysis

Gas‐chromatographic analysis of butyric acid (C4) in mixed spreadable fats can be used to calculate the milk fat proportion, either by additional analysis of the underlying pure milk fat (component sample) or by using a mean C4 content instead. After comparison of several analytical variants and subsequent development of an improved draft standard for quantitation of milk fat in mixed fats, this draft was checked for accuracy in three EU‐wide ring tests performed with 26 participating laboratories. Due to the natural variation of the butyric acid content in European milk fats, deviations from the actual milk fat content may amount up to ± 10% in addition to analytical errors when calculating with a mean C4 content instead of the C4 content of a component sample. Though the reproducibility could be improved by application of correction factors derived from a reference fat, only the calculation based on the additional analysis of a component sample of the pure milk fat led to an acceptable accuracy concerning the trueness of the results in combination with good repeatability (r) and reproducibility (R). Finally, several further improvements of the draft standard led to a precision of r = 4.3% and R = 6.0% relative to the mean of two milk fat contents determined. Thus, the tested procedure proved its suitability for a control method of the declared milk fat content in mixed fat spreads.     

Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Fetten in der Ernährung landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere

Application Feasibilities of Fats in the Nutrition of Agricultural Cattle The main application feasibilities of fats for animal nutrition are for monogastric cattle - poultry and pigs - as well as for calves. For ruminants, especially for milk cows, feeding of higher amounts of fat is more restricted because of the particularity of their digestion (pregastric fermentation). In case of fat additions rations have to be balanced concerning their content of protein or essential amino acids and other structural nutriants and effective agents with respect to the higher energy concentration. The effect of feeding fats on fat composition of the final product has to be observed. Using qualitatively unobjectionable fats fat additions of 3–5% for young pigs and 4–6% far fatted pigs are recommended. The corresponding recommendations for poultry are 2–4% for laying hens and 7–9% for broilers. For milk cows an encroachment on pregastric fermentation by higher fat additions can be expect ed. The maximum fat amount is about 800–1000 g per day. Using so called “protected” fat (stabilization by formalin) 1000 g per day should not be exceeded, either.     

Fat in today’s food supply—Level of use and sources

Nutrient fat—food fats and oils, as well as fat from meat, milk, and other fat containing foods—in the U.S. food supply has increased ca. one-fourth over the past 60 years or so on a per person/day basis. Ca. two-fifths of the fat currently comes from fats and oils, including butter; over a third comes from meat (including fat pork cuts), poultry, and fish; and ca. one-eight comes from dairy products. This large increase in nutrient fat is due mainly to the use of more vegetable fats—margarine, shortening, and salad and cooking oils. The per capita amount provided by animal fats actually has decreased, because the large decreases in consumption of butter and lard are only partly offset by increases in fat associated with greater consumption of meats. Despite the decrease in consumption of animal fats, they continue to provide ca. one-fourth of the total calories. Although the proportion of calories from vegetable fats has increased, animal products still account for the largest share of the calories provided by fat. Shifts in sources of fat and the increased amount of fat have changed the fatty acid content of the food supply. One of five papers presented at the symposium, “Status of Fat in Food and Nutrition,” AOCS Fall Meeting, Chicago, September 1973. ARS, USDA.     

Zusammensetzung und Aufbau der Triglyceride von Muttermilch und einiger Rohstoffe für Säuglingsnahrung

Composition and Structures of Triglycerides of Human Milk and Some Base Components for Infant Milk Formulas Following HPLC separation of human milk triglycerides with a silver-loaded ion exchange and an RP-18-phase column, the 50 substantial fractions obtained were characterized by gas chromatography of triglycerides and fatty acid methyl esters as well as by the analysis of intramolecular distribution on a reduced scale using ethyl magnesium bromide. Exploitation of all data available resulted in the detailed structures of 106 triglycerides, representing 81 g/100 g human milk fat. A substitute for producing infant milk formulas should be adapted to the composition and fatty acid distribution of those 14 substantial triglycerides which are present in human milk fat with more than 1 g/100 g, amounting to a total of 42 g/100 g. Among several fats and oils analyzed, only lard and a recent product were found to contain palmitic acid also predominantly in the 2-position. Therefore, other base components would require a directed fractionation and/or interesterification to be best adapted to human milk fat.     

Die Weiterentwicklung der Codex Alimentarius Standards für Öle und Fette

Further Development of Codex Alimentarius Standards for Oils and Fats A report is given on the further development of Codex Alimentarius Standards for oils and fats, which was discussed in the 9th meeting of the Codex Committee on Fats and Oils from 28th November to 2nd December 1977 in London. Topics discussed were a collaborative report by FAO and WHO on the role of fats in human nutrition, the general standard for oils and fats, and standards for reduced fat margarine, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, babassu oil, grape seed oil as well as marine oils. Furthermore, the limits of fatty acid composition as criteria for identification of specific oils and fats were discussed.     

Tierische Fette in der Tierernährung

Animal Fats in Animal Nutrition Intensive feeding of several types of farm animals is unthinkable without the use of fats in feed formulations. Animal fats are, however, considered inferior to plant oils with respect to quality and energy utilization. In the practical application, only mixed fat formulations are used. Therefore, there is little chance that the absorption of fat from the gastro-intestinal tract is inhibited by the presence of relatively high proportions of saturated C₁₆ and C₁₈ fatty acids. Large proportions of fat are used in feeds for broilers and calves. Moreover, from nutritional viewpoint, the fat content of feeds for swine and laying hen could be increased, if technical devices for restricted feeding are used, which prevent excessive intake of energy. A higher content of fat in ruminant feed is also to be recommended. Since in monogastric animals the consistency of fatty tissues is influenced by unsaturated fatty acids of dietary fat, the use of animal fats having low content of unsaturated fatty acids is favorable for the quality of slaughtered products.     

Physical and textural evaluation of some shortenings and margarines

Solid fat content of shortening and margarine was estimated by pulsed NMR. These values were compared with those of the melted fats using different cooling methods. Solid fat content of shortenings measured at 10 and 20 C followed the same trend as those measured on the melted fat tempered at 30 C. Solid fat content of margarines followed the same trend as those measured on the nontempered fats. Softening points of the products were similar to the dropping points of the fats, as were the temperatures of the DSC major melting peaks. Compression tests of cylindrical samples provided more information about textural characteristics of the products than one penetration tests.     

Fractionation of Interesterified Fats for the Preparation of Plastic Fats

Some specific directed interesterified fat products which had high slip points and had little potentiality for use as edible fats, were crystallized from acetone at different low temperatures. The appropriate fractions obtained from interesterified products of Ricebran containing Mowrah, Palm, Sal and of Sal and Cottonseed mixture (1:1, w/w), appeared to be suitable for utilization as vanaspati and margarine like fat products with high essential fatty acid content and without trans unsaturated fatty acids and also as highly stable deep frying fats and bakery fats.     

Margarines Produced From Rice Bran Oil and Fractionated Palm Stearin and Their Characteristics During Storage

Rice bran oil (RBO) usage in Southeast Asia is increasing. The purpose of this study was to incorporate RBO in margarine as a replacement for common oils such as soybean oil. The physicochemical properties of blends of RBO and fractionated palm stearin (FPS) at eleven different weight ratios (from 0:100 to 100:0) were characterized. Results showed that fat blends with ratios of 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70 RBO:FPS were semisolid at ambient temperature, with solid fat contents and a crystal morphology similar to commercial margarine fats. Blends containing ≤30% RBO were made into margarines and compared against commercial margarine over 8 weeks of storage. The margarine with a 20:80 RBO:FPS fat phase was stable against coalescence and phase separation while demonstrating acceptable spreadability and whippability at ambient temperature. Fat crystals in this blend were in the β′ polymorph at all time points during storage, which is a desired characteristic in margarine. This study showed that RBO may be effectively used for margarine production.     

Fasting and postprandial lipid response to the consumption of modified milk fats by guinea pigs

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of three modified milk fats with different melting profiles on fasting and postprandial lipid responses and on fecal fat content in guinea pigs. We hypothesized that the consumption of modified milk fat with a high m.p. results in reduced fasting and postprandial lipid responses compared with that of modified milk fat fractions with lower m.p. To test this hypothesis, male Hartley guinea pigs were fed isoenergetic diets containing 110 g of fat/kg, either from one of the three modified milk fats with high (HMF), medium (MMF), or low melting profiles (LMF), or from one of the two reference fats as whole mil fat (MF) or a fat blend similar to that of nonhydrogenated soft margarine (MA) for 28 d. Food intake (P<0.05) and body weight gain (P<0.05) were reduced in the animals fed the HMF diet compared with the other groups. In the fasting state, plasma LDL cholesterol was highest in animals fed the LMF diet, intermediary in those fed the MMF and MF diets, and lowest in those fed the HMF and MA diets (P<0.05). Postprandially, the areas under the 0- to 3-h curves for the changes in plasma TG were lower in the HMF group than in the MA- and LMF-fed guinea pigs (P<0.05). The fecal fat content was higher (P<0.05) in the HMF group compared to the other milk fat groups. The present results suggest that modified milk fats can impact food intake, body weight gain, fasting cholesterolemia, and postprandial triglyceridemia, and these changes may be attributed to an altered fat absorption.     

Enzymatically produced flavors for fatty systems

Technology has been developed for the production of flavor systems via controlled enzyme modification of fats. Lipases and esterases from various sources are used. Fats modified include milk fat and meat fats. A wide range of flavor profiles can be produced via control of enzyme, fat and processing prior to and subsequent to enzyme modification. Applications for the flavor systems include margarine, imitation dairy products, confections and prepared foods. One of 13 papers presented in the symposium “Flavor Research in Fats and Fat Bearing Foods,” AOCS Meeting, Atlantic City, October 1971.     

Essential fatty acid contents of various fats: Interpretations of values by physico-chemical tests

Biological assays of oil and fat products, free from isomers of the naturally-occurringcis-9,cis-12 linoleic acid, have been shown to provide estimates of essential fatty acid content which agree well with values obtained by spectrophoto-metric analysis. However, when partially hydrogenated fats, such as those used in margarines, are bio-assayed the estimates obtained are only about 60% of those derived by spectro-photometric tests. In a blended corn oil margarine, good agreement was obtained for linoleic acid content by using biological assay or spectrophotometry, thio-cyanometric procedure, column chromatography for saturates plus iodine value, and gas liquid partition (GLP) chromatography. This margarine fat contained about 29% of the essential form of linoleic acid, and had a ratio to saturated fatty acids of 1.6:1. The hydrogenated corn oil margarine is unlike conventional margarines in providing high amounts of the isomeric forms of linoleic acid which lack essential fatty acid activity. For this reason, poor agreement was obtained between biological assay results and those by physico-chemical measurements of linoleic acid content. Such fat contains only about 6% of the essential form of linoleic acid, with a ratio to saturated fatty acids of ca. 0.3.1. From this study it is now possible to characterize, even without bio-assay data, the fatty acid composition of a highly isomerized fat, such as is found in hydrogenated corn oil margarine. The characterization groups the fatty acids into saturates and total linoleic acids, with the latter including estimates of the positional isomers of linoleic acid with widely spaced double bonds,trans forms of linoleic acid with methylene-in-terrupted double bonds, linoleic acids with the double bonds in conjugated position, andcis-9,cis-12 linoleic acid. The combined use of the spectrophotometric and thiocyanometric procedures makes it possible to estimate the essential fatty acid content of hydrogenated fats containing residual dienes.