Some aspects of workability studies on P/M sintered high strength 4% Titanium carbide composite steel preforms during cold upsetting

Workability is concerned with the extent to which a material can be deformed in a specific metal working process without the initiation of cracks. Ductile fracture is the most common failure in bulk forming process. The formability is a complicated phenomenon which depends on the friction between the preform and the die surface in cold upsetting. A complete experimental investigation on the workability behavior of the steel composite of 4%TiC was performed under different stress states, namely, plane and triaxial stress state conditions. Cold upsetting of the Fe–1.0%C–4%Ti steel composite preforms was carried out applying different lubricants, namely, graphite, zinc stearate and molybdenum disulphide, and without lubricant, and the formability behaviour of the same under plane and triaxial stress state conditions was determined. The curves plotted for different preforms were analysed and relationship was established between the axial strain and the formability stress index under plane and triaxial state conditions. A relationship between the relative density and the axial strain was also established. Various stress ratio parameters, namely, (σ_θ/σ_eff), (σ_m/σ_eff) and (σ_z/σ_eff), under plane and triaxial stress state conditions were determined empirically as a function of the relative density. An attempt is also made to study the variation of slope of the relative density versus stress ratio parameters under plane and triaxial stress conditions with respect to the relative density to identify the pore closure mechanism.     

Effects of various loading stress paths on the stress-strain properties and on crushability of an industrial soft granular material

Mechanical characteristics (i.e., stiffness, internal friction angle, peak strength) and crushability of a soft granular material were evaluated by performing a comprehensive series of laboratory tests using the following devices: standard and non-standard triaxial apparatus, direct and annular shear box, oedometer and hydrostatic devices. The initial tested specimens differ by initial void ratio, grading characteristics and particle hardness. The air-dried specimen of soft particles were then subjected to monotonic loadings for various stress paths (direct and annular shear stress paths, oedometer stress paths until different upper normal pressures, triaxial stress paths including different confining pressures). After each homogeneous test, sieving has been performed in order to characterize the evolution of grading characteristics of the granular packing. Experimental results on mechanical properties show that maximum internal friction angle is rather independent of the particle stiffness even though small differences may exist before peak stress-state. As highlighted by recent studies (Arslan in Granul Matter 11(2): 87–97, 2009), the volumetric response of the specimen indicates that classical critical state is no more a relevant framework when particle crushability is too high compared with the applied stress-state. Crushability related to loading paths has been evaluated through the relative breakage ratio (B_r). The first results pointed out the effects of initial geometrical configuration (i.e., void ratio, grading) and particle stiffness. Analysis of the stress paths effects on the amount of breakage revealed that stress-state is not sufficient to describe properly breakage undergone by the material which is confirmed by an obvious link between volumetric strain and total breakage. Finally, the present study showed that the percentage of fine particles content during breakage may be seen as a function of the “level” of deviatoric loading paths.     

An experimental study of failure and softening in sand under three-dimensional stress condition

This paper describes an experimental study of failure and softening behaviour in dense Toyoura sand. A true triaxial apparatus equipped with three pairs of rigid loading platens is used to test sand sample under three-dimensional stress condition. The testing results demonstrate that the rigid boundary around the sand samples cannot prevent formation of shear localization. Shear localization are observed to emerge in the hardening or the softening regime in the loading depending on the magnitude of intermediate principal stress. Uniform deformation for the whole strain range is obtained only in triaxial compression tests. The peak stress state obtained from tests of sand samples of the same initial density can be described with good approximation by the Matsuoka–Nakai criterion.     

Some observations of the effects of pore fluids on the triaxial behaviour of a sand

This paper describes unusual stress–strain behaviour, involving deviatoric stress, axial strain and pore pressure jumps, observed during undrained triaxial compression testing of Leighton Buzzard sand when using syrup and silicon oil pore fluids. The materials, pore fluids, specimen preparation and test methods are described, as are the results of a suite of triaxial tests in a temperature controlled cell in which deviatoric stress, pore pressure and local strain were measured. The results are compared with the some existing data showing similar effects, and possible causes of the strain jumps are postulated. The results suggest that specimen formation in the way used here, in a viscous fluid, could suppress dilatancy.     

A constitutive model for the uplift behavior of anchors in cohesionless soils

Abstract

A series of triaxial tests has been performed to establish the stress‐strain curves for I‐Lan sand and Taipei silty sand. A constitutive model for the continuous strain hardening‐softening and volumetric dilatancy of these two soils is proposed, based on the results of triaxial tests. Using this model, a numerical program is then established, with FLAC software, to analyze the uplift behavior of model anchors in sand and field anchors in silty soil.

It was found from triaxial tests, that the peak friction angle increases with relative density of soil and decreases with confining pressure. A non‐associated flow rule between plastic strain increment and stress tensor was found. As accumulative plastic strain, relative density and confining pressure were changed, the mobilized friction angle and mobilized dilatancy angle also changed. All parameters needed for the proposed model can be expressed as functions of relative density and confining pressure. This model can calculate the stress‐ strain curves of cohesionless soils determined from triaxial tests accurately.

The load‐displacement behaviors determined from anchor tests are compared with those calculated from this numerical program, the numerical results are in good agreement with the test results not only for model anchors in sand but also for different types of field anchors in silty soil.     

Probing into the strain induced anisotropy of Hostun RF loose sand

Several recent linear drained preloading histories with fixed direction were especially designed to study the effects of strain induced anisotropy of loose Hostun RF sand in the compression side of the classical triaxial plane. Nearly identical void ratio and a same initial isotropic stress state prior to the final undrained shearing in compression are the requirements of the experimental program to take into account only the deviatoric strain histories. The effects of previous deviatoric strain histories on the undrained response of loose Hostun RF sand are identified: mainly the progressive transformation of a contractive and unstable behaviour of very loose sand into a dilative and stable behaviour of dense-like sand by previous linear drained history, while remaining in the same state of loose density. Experimental data evidence the directional dependency of the initial gradient of the effective stress paths, independent of the length of the approaching linear stress paths; the large common non linear effective stress response up to the deviatoric stress peak; the progressive appearance of the dilatancy domain and the unexpected evolution of the undrained behaviour of loose and presheared sand. The paper provides new insights into the mechanisms of strain induced anisotropy of loose sand created by simple linear triaxial stress paths from an isotropic stress state.     

堆石料真三轴条件下力学特性试验研究进展

该文综述了国内外岩土真三轴仪的发展、堆石料力学特性及机理相关的研究现状。重点介绍了该研究团队开发的大型岩土静动真三轴试验机及在堆石料力学特性试验研究方面取得的初步成果。按加载方式,土的真三轴仪可以分为3类:刚性加载真三轴仪、柔性加载真三轴仪和混合型加载真三轴仪。堆石料真三轴试验具有试样尺寸大、承压高、各方向相互干扰强、试样变形后荷载对中难、加压板与试样间摩擦效应强、试样安装和量测复杂等诸多困难。因而,目前适用于堆石料的真三轴仪和试验成果均较少。考虑堆石料真三轴及复杂应力路径条件下的颗粒破碎、各向异性等,研究其力学特性并开发相应的本构模型是该课题发展的趋势。清华大学大型岩土静动真三轴试验机中联合采用了椭圆形试样帽和异形乳胶膜的封样方式,可很好地解决真三轴试样的高压密封、拆装、量测和耐久性等一系列难题。对堆石料进行了一系列真三轴复杂应力路径试验,结果表明真三轴试验中堆石料表现出更明显的应力诱导各向异性和应力状态依赖性,特别是对小主应力-应变关系、球应力-体应变关系和广义剪应力-剪应变关系的影响更显著。球应力和广义剪应力对体积应变和广义剪应变之间存在着明显的交叉影响。     

Strength and deformation characteristics of a locked sand at low effective stresses

This paper describes the results of triaxial compression tests carried out at effective cell pressures ranging from 12.5 to 100 kPa to investigate the influence of fabric structure on the yield and failure of intact Reigate silver sand. In some of the tests, a digital image-based technique was used to determine the instant of onset of strain localisation, and the distribution of strain localisations within the specimen as overall deformation progressed. Comparative tests on intact and reconstituted specimens showed that fabric structure in the intact material allows the mobilisation of stress ratios close to peak before the onset of dilation, and increases the shear modulus at a given effective cell pressure and strain. Localisation was found to start at or after the onset of dilation, with a tendency to delay at increasing effective cell pressure. More localised deformation was observed at low effective cell pressures. Consistency between the critical state strengths of intact and reconstituted specimens is demonstrated, provided that the effect of shear band geometry is taken into account in stress analysis.     

Analysis of Garofalo equation parameters for an ultrahigh carbon steel

Isothermal stress–strain curves data from torsion tests conducted at high temperature (950–1200 °C) and strain rates (2–26 s⁻¹) were analyzed in an ultrahigh carbon steel (UHCS) containing 1.3%C. The sine hyperbolic Garofalo equation was selected as an adequate constitutive equation for the entire range of the forming variables considered. The Garofalo parameters were assumed strain dependent allowing the prediction of stress–strain curves under transient and steady-state conditions. The average relative errors obtained were below 3% in stress. In addition, the creep deformation mechanisms in the UHCS were analyzed from the Garofalo equation parameters. For this aim, the stress exponent of the Garofalo equation was, for the first time, related to that of the power law equation. The results show that the controlled deformation mechanism at steady state is lattice diffusion-controlled slip creep.     

Experimental characterization of the stress–strain behaviour of cemented paste backfill in compression

It is of great interest for economical and security reasons to understand the compressive properties of underground cemented paste backfill. In this paper, the stress–strain behaviours of cemented paste backfill (CPB) subjected to uniaxial compression and conventional triaxial tests are presented and discussed. The effect of CPB basic components, strength, ageing and confining pressure on the deformation behaviour of CPB are evaluated and discussed. The results show that the stress–strain behaviour of CPB is strongly influenced by the confinement, the age and strength of CPB, and its components. The increase in confining pressure leads to a change in the mode of failure, in the stiffness, and an increase in the strength.     

三轴SHPB加载下砂岩力学特性和破坏模式的试验研究

利用改造的三轴SHPB动静组合加载实验装置,对均质砂岩进行了不同围压和不同应变率下的三轴冲击压缩试验,作为对比利用RMT-150C试验机也进行了部分准静态下的三轴压缩实验。根据实验结果,分析了围压对砂岩动态冲击性能的影响,并重点讨论了冲击过程中岩石的破坏模式。研究结果表明,在围压一定的情况下,岩石的动态压缩强度随应变率的提高而提高;在应变率相同的情况下,岩石的动态压缩强度和弹性模量会随着围压的增大而增大。岩石发生破坏的临界入射能,随着围压的增大而增大。岩石单位体积吸收能与应变率之间呈线性递增关系,而且递增的程度随着围压的增加而增加。三轴冲击加载下,应变率较低时岩石内部形成压剪破裂面但整体不失稳,应变率很大时岩石破碎形成锥形块体形式。     

正常固结非饱和黏性土的三剪弹塑性本构模型

基于临界状态土力学框架,采用单应力变量法和双应力变量法非饱和土三剪强度准则,将原饱和土屈服函数中的屈服应力和破坏应力比分别替换成能反映土体饱和度影响的屈服应力和三剪破坏应力比,采用等量代换法和坐标平移法的三剪屈服函数推导出4种三剪弹塑性本构模型.所提本构模型能反映非饱和土全应力状态下土的强度区间效应、拉压强度差及黏聚力...     

非饱和黄土的破坏条件

根据黄土的沉积历史及强度性质建立了黄土的破坏条件,该条件在p--q平面上仍采用莫尔库仑条件,在p平面上满足形状函数一切条件,只需做常规三轴压缩和常规三轴挤长试验就可确定该条件的所有参数;依据非饱和土有效应力新表达式,提出了三维应力状态下有效应力参数的确定方法;用所做的非饱和原状黄土真三轴试验资料验证了该条件的适应性;将该条件与改进的条件、双园弧条件、Willam和Warnke条件比较,发现该条件在应用于黄土方面优于其它条件。     

Behavior of mass concrete under biaxial compression-tension and triaxial compression-compression-tension

To meet the requirement of nonlinear analysis and design for mass concrete structures, the mechanical characteristics of mass concrete specimens 25 × 25 × 40 cm with three-graded aggregate 5–80 mm under biaxial compression-tension and triaxial compression-compression-tension was studied experimentally with the multiaxial concrete apparatus. In comparison with the corresponding wet-screened concrete specimens 15 × 15 × 30 cm with two-graded aggregate 5–40 mm, it was found that the wet-screened effect and size effect under complex stress states were obvious, as under uniaxial stress state. By regression of the tests results, respective failure criteria for mass concrete in principal stress space and octahedronal stress space were proposed.     

不同应力路径下石灰岩碎石力学特性的大型三轴试验研究

为了解不同应力路径下,昆明新机场石灰岩碎石填料的力学特性及该填料力学特性受水影响的程度,采用大型三轴试验机,对该填料进行不同应力路径下的三轴试验及等σ′₃压缩应力路径下的干湿对比试验。结果表明:Δσ′₁≥0 时,围压和应力比k (即小主应力增量与大主应力增量的比值)增大,试件峰值应力及初始模量亦增大,但剪胀逐渐受到抑制;石灰岩碎石的剪胀及剪缩特性与应力路径有很强的相关性;石灰岩碎石的强度非线性特征显著,围压减小的应力路径下,试件剪切强度比等σ′₃应力路径下略低;水对石灰岩碎石的剪切强度、初始模量及剪胀性有较大影响。该文的试验成果可为构建考虑应力路径影响的高填方粗颗粒填料本构模型提供试验基础。     

The effect of stress state factor on fracture of sandstones under true triaxial loading

Experimental results on rock deformation and fracture under true triaxial compression have revealed a misfit between strain state and stress state, strain state varying from generalized compression to generalized shear at σ₃ ≠ 0. This misfit can lead to data misinterpretation during the stress field reconstruction after unloading. Fracture of rock specimens under true triaxial compression occurs by a combined longitudinal/transverse shear and produces the highest dilatancy. An increase in the hydrostatic pressure level diminishes limiting values of shear strains and suppresses the dilatancy effect. A maximum of dilatancy coincides with a maximum of fresh surface area formed during the fracture of the rock. The generalized cleavage of rocks becomes energetically disadvantageous in a true triaxial compressive stress field. Some sandstone becomes more brittle under true triaxial compression (σ₂ ≠ 0) at low values of the minimal stress component (σ₃) due to high initial porosity and dilatancy.     

Influence of free water content on the compressive mechanical behaviour of cement mortar under high strain rate

The effect of free water content upon the compressive mechanical behaviour of cement mortar under high loading rate was studied. The uniaxial rapid compressive loading testing of a total of 30 specimens, nominally 37 mm in diameter and 18.5 mm in height, with five different saturations (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%, respectively) were executed in this paper. The technique ‘Split Hopkinson pressure bar’ (SHPB) was used. The impact velocity was 10 m/s with the corresponding strain rate as 10²/s. Water-cement ratio of 0.5 was used. The compressive behaviour of the materials was measured in terms of the maximum stress, Young’s modulus, critical strain at maximum stress and ultimate strain at failure. The data obtained from test indicates that the similarity exists in the shape of strain–stress curves of cement mortars with different water content, the upward section of the stress–strain curve shows bilinear characteristics, while the descending stage (softening state) is almost linear. The dynamic compressive strength of cement mortar increased with the decreasing of water content, the dynamic compressive strength of the saturated specimens was 23% lower than that of the totally dry specimens. With an increase in water content, the Young’s modulus first increases and then decreases, the Young’s modulus of the saturated specimens was 23% lower than that of the totally dry specimens. No significant changes occurred in the critical and ultimate strain value as the water content is changed.     

Numerical analysis of critical state behaviors of granular soils under different loading conditions

Discrete element method is used to simulate granular assembly behaviors with different initial conditions under three different loading conditions—plain strain, conventional triaxial compression, and direct shear. Different deformation modes of specimens with different conditions are presented. Some important parameters of the critical state theory are investigated. Uniqueness of the critical state line is checked which shows that there is no a unique critical state line for specimens with different initial void ratios under different loading conditions. Frictional angles and dilation angles of specimens with different conditions at critical state are compared. Void ratios and coordination numbers of specimens at critical state are studied. Anisotropies of the particle orientation and normal contact force at initial state, critical state, as well as the evolutions during shearing are analyzed. The anisotropy is shown to have significant effects on the soil behaviors and is related to the non-uniqueness of the critical state line. The developed numerical models can be used to study the micromechanics and microstructure of the specimen subjected to different loading conditions in the future.     

ANALYSIS OF CAST STEEL FRACTURE MECHANISMS FOR DIFFERENT STATES OF STRESS

The process of fracture in a low-carbon cast steel was studied for different states of stress. As a result of heat treatment, two different microstructures have been obtained: ferritic-pearlitic and bainitic. The triaxial states of stress were realised by tensile tests on specimens with various notch configurations and on smooth specimens subjected to different hydrostatic pressures.
During tensile tests carried out under triaxial stress states, the following quantities at fracture were determined: the effective strain, effective stress, stress state components, mean stress and stress triaxiality factor. Fractography of the specimens was carried out to observe the fracture mechanisms and relate them to the state of stress. The fracture mechanism depended on the state of stress and microstructure. With a decreasing stress triaxiality factor, the failure mechanism changed from ductile to shear. The fracture mechanism changed across the diameter of the sample and also depended on the microstructure. The small, smooth samples fractured at a higher stress than the larger samples. Ductile fracture in the ferritic-pearlitic microstructure was controlled by cracking of the matrix–precipitate boundary. Samples with the bainitic microstructure fractured by shear, and fracture depended mainly on the effective stress, although void growth (which is controlled by stress triaxiality) reduced the critical effective stress at positive values of mean stress.     

Fracture of aluminium alloy 2024 under biaxial and triaxial loading

Previous studies on multi-axial fracture of metals have shown that the critical J-integral at fracture may be less than the fracture toughness measured in a standard test. This gives rise to the question: what is the minimum critical J-integral and how can it be obtained? To answer this question a series of uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial tests were carried out. Conducting biaxial and triaxial tests allows the effects of stress state in the fracture of metallic materials to be investigated, particularly when the plasticity is highly constrained. The primary purpose of this paper is to report the experimental findings of the tests performed on specimens fabricated from aluminium alloy 2024. Results of finite element analyses are then used to study further the detailed stress state near the crack tip and to evaluate the intensity of the plastic deformation and relate it to the critical J-integral variation. It was found that indeed high triaxial loading, corresponding to limited plastic deformation prior to the fracture, decreases the critical J-integral even below the values obtained from the biaxial tests, which are already less than the standard uniaxial value.