Revising the redundancy principle in multimedia learning.

College students viewed a short multimedia PowerPoint presentation consisting of 16 narrated slides explaining lightning formation (Experiment 1) or 8 narrated slides explaining how a car's braking system works (Experiment 2). Each slide appeared for approximately 8-10 s and contained a diagram along with 1-2 sentences of narration spoken in a female voice. For some students (the redundant group), each slide also contained 2-3 printed words that were identical to the words in the narration, conveyed the main event described in the narration, and were placed next to the corresponding portion of the diagram. For other students (the nonredundant group), no on-screen text was presented. Results showed that the group whose presentation included short redundant phrases within the diagram outperformed the nonredundant group on a subsequent test of retention (d = 0.47 and 0.70, respectively) but not on transfer. Results are explained by R. E. Mayer's (2001, 2005a) cognitive theory of multimedia learning, in which the redundant text served to guide the learner's attention without priming extraneous processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: When reading helps listening.

Three studies investigated whether and under what conditions the addition of on-screen text would facilitate the learning of a narrated scientific multimedia explanation. Students were presented with an explanation about the process of lightning formation in the auditory alone (nonredundant) or auditory and visual (redundant) modalities. In Experiment 1, the effects of preceding the nonredundant or redundant explanation with a corresponding animation were examined. In Experiment 2, the effects of presenting the nonredundant or redundant explanation with a simultaneous or a preceding animation were compared. In Experiment 3, environmental sounds were added to the nonredundant or redundant explanation. Learning was measured by retention, transfer, and matching tests. Students better comprehended the explanation when the words were presented auditorily and visually rather than auditorily only, provided there was no other concurrent visual material. The overall pattern of results can be explained by a dual-processing model of working memory, which has implications for the design of multimedia instruction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning science in virtual reality multimedia environments: Role of methods and media.

College students learned about botany through an agent-based multimedia game. In Experiment 1, students received either spoken or identical on-screen text explanations; in addition, the lesson was presented either via a desktop display (D), a head-mounted display (HMD) used while sitting, or an HMD used while walking (W). In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of presenting explanations as narration (N), text (T), or both (NT) within the D and W conditions. Students scored higher on retention, transfer, and program ratings in N conditions than in T conditions. The NT condition produced results in between. Students gave higher ratings of presence when learning with HMDs, but media did not affect performance on measures of retention, transfer, or program ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new wave of innovations in psychology: High intellectual and creative educational multimedia technologies.

This article describes high intellectual and creative educational multimedia technologies (HICEMTs), which will constitute one of the innovative breakthroughs in science and technology of the 21st century and will lead to a new wave of innovations in psychology. HICEMTs appear at the intersection of many subdisciplines of psychology (including general, cognitive, developmental, educational, personality, media, cyber, and applied), education, and multimedia. The general and specific nature of HICEMTs is considered. The importance of HICEMTs is discussed from technological, economic, societal, educational, and psychological perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fuzzy picture processing: Effects of size reduction and blurring on emotional processing.

Previous studies have suggested that picture size reduction affects emotional reactions, possibly because scenes subtending a small visual angle are perceived as being more distant and less relevant compared to larger stimuli. However, pictures that subtend a small visual angle also contain few fine-grained details, which may determine less vivid representations and responses compared to larger and more detailed images. Critically, the present study compared two different types of manipulations, namely size reduction and low-pass spatial filtering, which determined similar detail loss but affected visual angles differently. Affective modulation was assessed using an evaluative task and a behavioral interference task. Results showed that the availability of fine-grained details, independently of visual angle, modulated emotional evaluation. Moreover, interference in an unrelated task was unaffected by either size reduction or low-pass spatial filtering. These findings suggest that high spatial frequencies affect subjective emotional response whereas attentional capture by affective stimuli seems to rely on information that is sufficient to allow a categorization of picture content. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of response task and accessory stimuli on redundancy gain: Tests of the hemispheric coactivation model.

Two experiments tested predictions of the hemispheric coactivation model for redundancy gain (J. O. Miller, 2004). Simple reaction time was measured in divided attention tasks with visual stimuli presented to the left or right of fixation or redundantly to both sides. Experiment 1 tested the prediction that redundancy gain--the decrease in reaction time when 2 stimuli are presented rather than 1--should increase when the response requires a greater degree of bilateral control by both hemispheres. In different blocks, the response was made with the left hand, the right hand, or both hands simultaneously. In accordance with the model, redundancy gain was larger with bimanual than with unimanual responses. Experiment 2 tested and found support for the prediction that redundancy gain should decrease when both hemispheres are activated by an irrelevant auditory accessory stimulus. Thus, the results support the hemispheric coactivation model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correcting distance estimates by interacting with immersive virtual environments: Effects of task and available sensory information.

The tendency to underestimate egocentric distances in immersive virtual environments (VEs) is not well understood. However, previous research (A. R. Richardson & D. Waller, 2007) has demonstrated that a brief period of interaction with the VE prior to making distance judgments can effectively eliminate subsequent underestimation. Here the authors examine the mechanism underlying the effect of VE interaction and the conditions that may give rise to it. In Experiment 1, after interacting with an immersive VE, participants tended to overestimate distances in the physical world, indicating that the interaction involved a recalibration of the perceptual-motor system. Experiment 2 demonstrates that visual information is not necessary (and that body-based information is necessary) during the interaction period for it to have a positive effect on subsequent distance estimation accuracy. Experiment 3 illustrates that the interaction task does not need to be goal directed in order to be effective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discussion: Toward elaborating and implementing a conceptualization of healthy, safe training environments.

The issue of addressing problems of student competence that arise in training programs has merited increasing attention in the literature. Articles in this special issue discuss problems in student competence from three distinct perspectives: legal and risk management, ecological, and collaborative. This discussion reviews how the central points from each article may be used to formulate a coherent agenda for conceptualizing a response to problems in student competence, with an accompanying program of related research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories.

Four studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that group-related physical features may directly activate related stereotypes, leading to more stereotypic inferences over and above those resulting from categorization. As predicted, targets with more Afrocentric features were judged as more likely to have traits stereotypic of African Americans. This effect was found with judgments of African Americans and of European Americans. Furthermore, the effect was not eliminated when a more sensitive measure of categorization processes (category accessibility) was used or when the judgement context made category distinctions salient. Of additional interest was the finding that category accessibility independently affected judgment, such that targets who could be more quickly categorized as group members were judged more stereotypically. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of infant discrimination of affect in multimodal and unimodal stimulation: The role of intersensory redundancy.

This research examined the developmental course of infants' ability to perceive affect in bimodal (audiovisual) and unimodal (auditory and visual) displays of a woman speaking. According to the intersensory redundancy hypothesis (L. E. Bahrick, R. Lickliter, & R. Flom, 2004), detection of amodal properties is facilitated in multimodal stimulation and attenuated in unimodal stimulation. Later in development, however, attention becomes more flexible, and amodal properties can be perceived in both multimodal and unimodal stimulation. The authors tested these predictions by assessing 3-, 4-, 5-, and 7-month-olds' discrimination of affect. Results demonstrated that in bimodal stimulation, discrimination of affect emerged by 4 months and remained stable across age. However, in unimodal stimulation, detection of affect emerged gradually, with sensitivity to auditory stimulation emerging at 5 months and visual stimulation at 7 months. Further temporal synchrony between faces and voices was necessary for younger infants' discrimination of affect. Across development, infants first perceive affect in multimodal stimulation through detecting amodal properties, and later their perception of affect is extended to unimodal auditory and visual stimulation. Implications for social development, including joint attention and social referencing, are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game.

The authors investigated whether guidance and reflection would facilitate science learning in an interactive multimedia game. College students learned how to design plants to survive in different weather conditions. In Experiment 1, they learned with an agent that either guided them with corrective and explanatory feedback or corrective feedback alone. Some students were asked to reflect by giving explanations about their problem-solving answers. Guidance in the form of explanatory feedback produced higher transfer scores, fewer incorrect answers, and greater reduction of misconceptions during problem solving. Reflection in the form of having students give explanations for their answers did not affect learning. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that reflection promotes retention and far transfer in noninteractive environments but not in interactive ones unless students are asked to reflect on correct program solutions rather than on their own solutions. Results support the appropriate use of guidance and reflection for interactive multimedia games. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructional support within constructivist learning environments for elementary school students' understanding of "floating and sinking."

In a repeated measures design (pretest, posttest, 1-year follow-up) with 161 3rd-grade students, the authors compared 2 curricula on floating and sinking within constructivist learning environments, varying in instructional support. The 2 curricula differed in the sequencing of content and the teacher's cognitively structuring statements. At the posttest, both instructed groups showed significant gains on a test on understanding the concepts of density and buoyancy force as compared to a baseline group without instruction. One year later, the group of high instructional support was superior to the group of low instructional support on the reduction of misconceptions and the adoption of scientific explanations. Thus, instructional support within constructivist learning environments fostered elementary schoolchildren's conceptual change in the domain of physics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of isolated and confined environments: Understanding human behavior in Antarctica.

Psychosocial adaptation to isolated and confined environments exhibits 4 distinct characteristics. First, it is seasonal: Variations in mood are associated with the altered diurnal cycle and psychological segmentation of the mission. Second, it is situational: Concurrent measures of personality, interpersonal needs, and coping styles are better predictors of mood and performance than are predeployment measures. Third, it is social: Members of expeditions with low social coherence report significantly more depression, anxiety, and anger than individuals belonging to expeditions with high social coherence. Fourth, it is salutogenic: Depressed mood is inversely associated with the severity of the physical environment of the station, and the winter-over experience is associated with reduced subsequent rates of hospital admissions, suggesting positive benefits for individuals seeking challenging experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Haptic interfaces for virtual environments: Perceived instability and force constancy in haptic sensing of virtual surfaces.

Haptic interfaces are becoming more commonplace in virtual environment and teleoperation systems. There is a growing need to not only continue to improve hardware platforms and rendering algorithms, but evaluate human performance with haptic interfaces. This review summarizes two recent studies inspired by perception problems in using haptic interfaces to interact with virtual environments. The first study evaluated perceived quality of virtual haptic textures and discovered several types of perceived instability and their sources. We found that the buzzing type of perceived instability was most likely due to the mechanical resonance of the haptic interface hardware, and the aliveness type of perceived instability due to our inability to sense the slight movements of our hands in free space. The second study focused on the motor strategy employed during interaction with a virtual surface via a force-feedback haptic interface. We found that users tended to maintain a constant penetration force into a virtual surface when interacting with the surface. This can result in a reversal in perceived relative surface heights if the taller surface is rendered with a lower stiffness, thereby resulting in an erroneous perception of the virtual environment being rendered. For both studies, possible solutions to improving human perception of virtual and remote objects via hardware and/or software are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychophysiological perspective on presence: The implications of mediated environments on relationships, behavioral health and social construction.

As technologies are increasingly being used to deliver educational curricula and health care services, presence becomes an essential construct for psychologists to assimilate. Presence, or the sense of "being there" in a mediated environment, has implications for the development of new behavioral health interventions; improved approaches for performance and education; and, for the promotion of new strategies for healthier lifestyles. Understanding the essential components of presence may allow us new insights into interpersonal relationships, improved communications, more effective conflict resolution strategies, and in determining how to better teach compassion, empathy, and prosocial behavior. This article discusses the general construct of presence, defines psychophysiological determinants of presence, addresses the quantification of presence, describes "optimal" presence, and presents future directions for research and clinical applications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Grouping and emergent features in vision: Toward a theory of basic Gestalts.

Gestalt phenomena are often so powerful that mere demonstrations can confirm their existence, but Gestalts have proven hard to define and measure. Here we outline a theory of basic Gestalts (TBG) that defines Gestalts as emergent features (EFs). The logic relies on discovering wholes that are more discriminable than are the parts from which they are built. These wholes contain EFs that can act as basic features in human vision. As context is added to a visual stimulus, a hierarchy of EFs appears. Starting with a single dot and adding a second yields the first two potential EFs: the proximity (distance) and orientation (angle) between the two dots. A third dot introduces two more potential EFs: symmetry and linearity; a fourth dot produces surroundedness. This hierarchy may extend to collinearity, parallelism, closure, and more. We use the magnitude of Configural Superiority Effects to measure the salience of EFs on a common scale, potentially letting us compare the strengths of various grouping principles. TBG appears promising, with our initial experiments establishing and quantifying at least three basic EFs in human vision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Redundancy gains and costs in cognitive processing: Effects of short stimulus onset asynchronies.

In 7 experiments, the influence of varying stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) on the processing of redundant information about words and pseudowords was investigated. All stimuli were visually presented once or twice with 2 copies of the same item flashed either simultaneously or with short SOAs between presentations. The experiments revealed a redundancy gain for words that was absent for pseudowords. Furthermore, the redundancy gain disappeared at an SOA of 50 ms, and them was a gradual performance decline at longer SOAs. However, probing SOAs of 150 and 300 ms revealed that, compared with presentation of 1 target stimulus alone, words were processed significantly faster when target and redundant copy appeared with a 150-ms lag. The results are tentatively explained in a neurocognitive framework (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical features of major depressive disorder in adolescents and their relatives: Impact on familial aggregation, implications for phenotype definition, and specificity of transmission.

Three questions were addressed using family study data from a community sample: (a) Which clinical features of major depressive disorder (MDD) in adolescents are associated with elevated rates of MDD in relatives? (b) Which features of MDD in relatives distinguish family members of depressed adolescents from relatives of adolescents without mood disorders (NMD)? and (c) Do depressed adolescents with particular features have higher proportions of depressed relatives with the same features? Participants included 268 MDD adolescents, 401 NMD adolescents, and their 2,202 first-degree relatives. Rates of MDD were highest among relatives of depressed adolescents with recurrent episodes and greater impairment. Depression severity best distinguished the relatives of depressed adolescents from relatives of controls. Specific clinical features did not aggregate in families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of three measures of cognitive load: Evidence for separable measures of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load.

Understanding how to measure cognitive load is a fundamental challenge for cognitive load theory. In 2 experiments, 155 college students (ages = 17 to 22; 49 men and 106 women) with low domain knowledge learned from a multimedia lesson on electric motors. At 8 points during learning, their cognitive load was measured via self-report scales (mental effort ratings) and response time to a secondary visual monitoring task, and they completed a difficulty rating scale at the end of the lesson. Correlations among the three measures were generally low. Analyses of variance indicated that the response time measure was most sensitive to manipulations of extraneous processing (created by adding redundant text), effort ratings were most sensitive to manipulations of intrinsic processing (created by sentence complexity), and difficulty ratings were most sensitive to indications of germane processing (reflected by transfer test performance). Results are consistent with a triarchic theory of cognitive load in which different aspects of cognitive load may be tapped by different measures of cognitive load. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer of Spatial Behavior Between Different Environments: Implications for Theories of Spatial Learning and for the Role of the Hippocampus in Spatial Learning.

In 3 experiments, rats were required to find a submerged platform located in 1 corner of an arena that had 2 long and 2 short sides; they were then trained to find the platform in a new arena that also had 2 long and 2 short sides but a different overall shape. The platform in the new arena was easier to find if it was in a corner that was geometrically equivalent, rather than the mirror image, of the corner where it had previously been located. The final experiment revealed that hippocampal lesions impaired rats' ability to find the platform in these arenas. The results suggest that rats did not use the overall shape of the arena to locate the platform but relied on more local cues and that the hippocampus plays a role in navigation based on these cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)