Relationships between instructional language and primary students' learning.

Causal modeling was used to examine how primary students' language ability interacted with pace and redundancy of instructional language during an expository science lesson to explain students' attention and learning. Language ability and pace of the instructional language, mediated by students' attention to the lesson, accounted for significant variance in learning outcomes. Higher language ability related to greater learning. Overall, slow-paced instructional language was positively related to learning, but students attended less to it than to fast-paced talk. Students with special needs attended significantly less and learned less, whereas students not so identified attended slightly less but learned more. Teachers' talk matters, but because instructional language impacts differentially on students, heuristics for modifying it are not straightforward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' perceptions of students' reading abilities: An examination of the relationship between teachers' judgments and students' performance across a continuum of rating methods.

Teacher perceptions about students' academic abilities are important for several reasons (e.g., instructional decision making, special education entitlement decisions). Not surprisingly, researchers have investigated the accuracy of teachers' decisions. Although some data reveal that teachers are relatively good judges of academic performance, other findings have suggested otherwise. A likely explanation for conflicting findings is the varying assessment methods (e.g., direct vs. indirect, norm-referenced vs. peer-independent) and different data analysis procedures that have been used across studies. The purpose of this study was to investigate a continuum of teacher-perception assessment methods as they corresponded to students' oral reading fluency performance. Participants included 10 teachers and 87 first, second, and third grade students from a suburban school in the northeast. Overall results suggested that teachers were generally accurate when estimating students' performance when students had strong oral reading fluency skills, but teachers had more difficulty judging students with average to low oral reading fluency. Further, data interpretation of teachers' judgment accuracy differed somewhat depending upon the statistical method employed. Implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research related to this study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aging and the vulnerability of speech to dual task demands.

Tracking a digital pursuit rotor task was used to measure dual task costs of language production by young and older adults. Tracking performance by both groups was affected by dual task demands: time on target declined and tracking error increased as dual task demands increased from the baseline condition to a moderately demanding dual task condition to a more demanding dual task condition. When dual task demands were moderate, older adults' speech rate declined but their fluency, grammatical complexity, and content were unaffected. When the dual task was more demanding, older adults' speech, like young adults' speech, became highly fragmented, ungrammatical, and incoherent. Vocabulary, working memory, processing speed, and inhibition affected vulnerability to dual task costs: vocabulary provided some protection for sentence length and grammaticality, working memory conferred some protection for grammatical complexity, and processing speed provided some protection for speech rate, propositional density, coherence, and lexical diversity. Further, vocabulary and working memory capacity provided more protection for older adults than for young adults although the protective effect of processing speed was somewhat reduced for older adults as compared to the young adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Homophone effects in visual word recognition depend on homophone type and task demands.

This experiment examined how the characteristics of homophones and their mates influence homophone effects, as a function of task demands. Two types of homophones were presented: 1) low-frequency homophones with higher-frequency mates that are not animal names (e.g., maid--made), and 2) low-frequency homophones with mates that are, on average, of equivalent frequency and are animal names (e.g., foul--fowl). We observed a double dissociation: In the lexical decision task (LDT), there was a homophone effect for the first type of homophones but not for the second, whereas in the semantic categorization task (SCT) the opposite was true. These results suggest that in these tasks the effects of homophony arise when the homophone's mate creates competition in terms of the type of processing emphasized in the task, namely, orthographic processing in the LDT and semantic processing in the SCT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpreting instructional cues in task switching procedures: The role of mediator retrieval.

In 3 experiments the role of mediators in task switching with transparent and nontransparent cues was examined. Subjects switched between magnitude (greater or less than 5) and parity (odd or even) judgments of single digits. A cue-target congruency effect indicated mediator use: subjects responded faster to congruent cue-target combinations (e.g., ODD-3) than to incongruent cue-target combinations (e.g., ODD-4). Experiment 1 revealed significant congruency effects with transparent word cues (ODD, EVEN, HIGH, and LOW) and with relatively transparent letter cues (O, E, H, and L) but not with nontransparent letter cues (D, V, G, and W). Experiment 2 revealed significant congruency effects after subjects who were trained with nontransparent letter cues were informed of the relations between cues and word mediators halfway through the experiment. Experiment 3 showed that congruency effects with relatively transparent letter cues diminished over 10 sessions of practice, suggesting that subjects used mediators less as practice progressed. The results are discussed in terms of the role of mediators in interpreting instructional cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' brief nonverbal behaviors in defined instructional situations can predict students' evaluations.

Can a few seconds of high school teachers' nonverbal (NV) behavior predict students' ratings of these teachers (SRT)? Yes, but NV-SRT relations varied among various instructional situations. NV behaviors while administering the class and using the board were unrelated to SRT. Positive judgments of NV behavior while disciplining the class and interacting with students were positively related to SRT. NV behaviors in frontal teaching were negatively related to SRT. The most negative NV-SRT relations were found for teachers' differential NV behavior toward high- versus low-achieving students. Teacher differentiality and SRT have rarely been investigated in high school. The structure of SRT seems to differ between high school and college, and students' anger about teachers' differentiality strongly predicted their evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' perceptions of their relationships with students: Effects of child age, gender, and ethnicity of teachers and children.

This study assessed the extent to which teachers' perceptions of their relationships with young students varied as a function of child and teacher characteristics in a large, demographically diverse sample of 197 preschool and kindergarten teachers and 840 children (mean age 4 yrs 7 mo old). Children were approximately evenly divided between boys and girls. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the relation between teachers' perceptions of their relationships with students and (a) teacher ethnicity, (b) child age, ethnicity, and gender, and (c) the ethnic match between teacher and child. Child age and ethnicity and teacher–child ethnic match were consistently related to teachers perceptions, explaining up to 27% of the variance in perceptions of negative aspects of the teacher–child relationship, specifically teacher–child conflict. When child and teacher had the same ethnicity, teachers rated their relationships with children more positively. The results are discussed in terms of classroom social processes related to children's adjustment and the measurement of teacher–child relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Context-sensitive adjustments of cognitive control: Conflict-adaptation effects are modulated by processing demands of the ongoing task.

Dynamic adjustments of cognitive control in response to interference from irrelevant stimulus attributes have repeatedly been shown. The purpose of the current research was to investigate how these control adjustments are modulated by the processing demands of a primary task. To this end, the authors combined a primary task (a number comparison task: classifying digits as smaller or larger than 5) with a Simon task. Control adjustments were observed in the form of typical sequential modulations of the Simon effect. In addition, the authors found sequential modulations of the numerical distance effect and an interaction of both effects. Results suggest that not only response conflict due to interference from task-irrelevant features but also processing demands of task-relevant features determine the level of control adjustment in the subsequent trial. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pressure from above and pressure from below as determinants of teachers' motivation and teaching behaviors.

When teachers are more supportive of autonomy and less controlling, students demonstrate higher levels of intrinsic motivation and self-determination. The purpose of this study was to examine social-contextual conditions that led teachers (N=254) who taught classes from Grades 1 to 12 to be more autonomy supportive versus controlling with their students. Using structural equation modeling, the authors observed that the more teachers perceive pressure from above (they have to comply with a curriculum, with colleagues, and with performance standards) and pressure from below (they perceived their students to be nonself-determined), the less they are self-determined toward teaching. In turn, the less they are self-determined toward teaching, the more they become controlling with students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interspersing additional easier items to enhance mathematics performance on subtests requiring different task demands.

The current study was conducted to extend research on the interspersal procedure using standardized mathematics subtests with different task demands. Thirty, Grade 7, at-risk students were administered Forms A and B of the Mental Computation and Multiplication subtests of the KeyMath-Revised (KM-R; A. J. Connolly, 1988). For each subtest, students were administered a control subtest and an experimental subtest that contained additional easier items interspersed among standard items. Results showed that the interspersal procedure enhanced academic performance on the Mental Computation subtest, but not the Multiplication subtest. These results indicate that the efficacy of the interspersal procedure is affected differentially by task demands. Findings support N. A. Neef, B. A. Iwata, and T. J. Page's (1977, 1980) hypothesis that the interspersal procedure may increase rates of reinforcement, which enhances students' attention to tasks and their performance on tasks that require high levels of sustained attention. Discussion focuses on applied and theoretical implications of identifying the mechanisms that contribute to the effectiveness of interspersal procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Branching program, text, and lecture: A comparative investigation of instructional media.

Most comparative studies of programs with conventional media have compared a linear program plus lecture condition with either a lecture-alone, program alone, or text-alone. This design results in noncomparable treatment groups, since the experimental Ss may either be given more time to use the program or are exposed to the same material twice. The present study, utilizing a branching program, controls for these possible error factors. Based upon the performance of 66 undergraduate Ss, an analysis of covariance suggests that sheer repetition of material, regardless of the medium employed, is a significant factor influencing the outcome of comparative studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of age and task demands on visual selective attention.

We investigated whether young and older adults differ on measures of interference (INT), negative priming (NP), and inhibition of return (IOR) on a spatial selective attention task that gradually increased in cognitive demand, from simple perceptual matching to letter identification. For both groups, INT increased and IOR decreased with task demand; while NP remained stable. We found age-related increases in INT, NP, and IOR, independent of task demand. However, only between-groups differences in IOR remained after correcting for age-related slowing in response times. Finally, we found no association between our measures of attention across groups, suggesting negligible overlap between INT, NP, and IOR. Our results indicate that attention is selectively and independently influenced by age and task demands, with both effects dependent on how attention is measured. These findings shed light on the “frontal hypothesis of aging.” (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' and deaf students' perceptions of communication ease and engagement.

Collected ratings of communication ease and of engagement for 95 deaf junior and senior high school students (aged 12–21 yrs) in a large, urban, multiethnic school for the deaf. Ratings were made by the students' English teachers and by the students themselves. High teacher ratings for communication ease and engagement were associated with high academic achievement as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test. High student ratings for communication ease were also associated with academic achievement. The 2 best predictors of academic achievement were student-rated communication ease and teacher-rated engagement. Findings suggest that it is important for teachers to be sensitive to the level of communication comfort of their students because students who enjoy easier communication may be more likely to be engaged, or more actively involved, in classroom learning and to demonstrate higher academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spontaneous trait inferences and organisational actions: The formation of organisation personality perceptions.

Organisation personality perceptions, or the attribution of human personality characteristics to an organisation, have been found to affect organisational attraction, job pursuit intentions, and organisational reputation. Although the presence and potency of these attributions have been established, little is known about the manner in which these attributions come about, particularly whether the process is consistent with personality attributions made about human targets. In the current paper, we extend previous work by investigating the underlying social–cognitive mechanism by which organisation personality perceptions are formed. Specifically, we tested the proposition that organisation personality perceptions are spontaneously inferred in a manner that is functionally isomorphic with individual personality perceptions. Study 1 used a cued-recall paradigm, with results indicating that implied trait words improved recall for both individual and organisational actors. Study 2 extended these findings using a lexical decision paradigm; results showed improved performance when making a lexical decision about trait words regardless of whether the actor in a behaviour presented just prior was an individual or an organisation. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organizational citizenship behavior and performance evaluations: Exploring the impact of task interdependence.

The influence of task interdependence on the importance attributed to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in evaluations of employee performance was investigated in 3 studies. In Study 1,238 undergraduates were exposed to a task interdependence manipulation and a unit-level performance manipulation and provided citizenship ratings. In Study 2,148 master of business administration students were exposed to a task interdependence manipulation and then rated the importance of OCB in their evaluations of employee performance. In Study 3,130 managers rated the task interdependence in their unit of principal responsibility and the importance of OCB in their overall evaluations of employee performance. The results suggest task interdependence may affect the importance attributed to OCB by evaluators. Implications of these results are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

O. J. Simpson as shared (and unshared) reality: The impact of consensually shared beliefs on interpersonal perceptions and task performance in different- and same-ethnicity dyads.

Shared reality theory postulates that interpersonal relationships are regulated by the degree to which people share experiences and beliefs (Hardin & Higgins, 1996). To assess consequences of shared (and unshared) reality for interpersonal relationships, we examined the effects of the 1990s Simpson trial on actual interpersonal interactions in same- and different-ethnicity dyads. In 3 experiments (conducted directly following, 5 years after, and 10 years after the trial), people who had been primed with Simpson participated in cooperative problem-solving tasks. Because the trial represented a dimension of belief discrepancy between Blacks and Whites but a dimension of shared beliefs within the two ethnic groups, shared reality theory predicts that activating memories of the trial would affect interpersonal interactions differently depending upon ethnic composition of dyads. As predicted, thoughts of Simpson caused decrements in quality of interpersonal perceptions and behaviors for different-ethnicity dyads but increases for same-ethnicity dyads. In addition, in a 4th study, we found that consensus predicted liking among partners in the previous 3 experiments and that these effects were significant in the expected direction for both same- and different-ethnicity pairs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task preparation and task repetition: Two-component model of task switching.

The switch cost (the disadvantage of performing a new task vs. a repeated task) has been attributed to lack of preparation for the switched task or priming of the repeated task. These sources were examined by manipulating foreknowledge of task transition (repeat or switch), response-to-stimulus interval (RSI), and practice level. Regardless of foreknowledge, the cost decreased with RSI and practice. The reduction was greater with foreknowledge than with no foreknowledge, and the amount of switch cost did not depend on foreknowledge. These results suggest that the switch cost with foreknowledge may consist of both inadequate preparation and repetition benefit but the switch cost with no foreknowledge may reflect repetition benefit only. An ACT-R (adaptive control of thought-rational) model was proposed, accommodating both preparation and priming effect with 2 independent processes: conflict resolution among productions and decay of chunk activation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal orientations and performance: Differential relationships across levels of analysis and as a function of task demands.

Goal orientation and self-regulation theories were integrated to develop a multilevel framework aimed at addressing controversies regarding the magnitude and direction of goal orientation effects on performance. In Study 1, goal orientations were measured repeatedly whilst individuals performed an air traffic control task. In Study 2, goal orientations and exam performance were measured across 3 time points while undergraduates completed a course. Mastery-approach orientation was positively related to performance at the intraindividual level, but not at the interindividual level, and its effect was not moderated by task demands. Performance-approach positively predicted performance at the interindividual level, and at the intraindividual level, the direction of its effect switched as a function of task demands. Performance-avoid negatively predicted performance at the interindividual level but did not emerge as an intraindividual predictor. Mastery-avoid did not relate to performance at either level of analysis. This consistent pattern across 2 studies suggests that levels of analysis and task demands can determine the magnitude and direction of goal orientation effects on performance and highlights avenues for theory development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of task success to task liking and satisfaction.

4 laboratory experiments are reported which examine the relationship between degree of task success and degree of liking for and satisfaction with the task. A number of different tasks, measures, and situations were used. In all cases there was clear evidence for a significant (positive) linear relationship between success and measures of liking and satisfaction. The major reasons given for liking a task involved attributes of the individual's performance (e.g., improvement); reasons given for not liking a task most often involved attributes other than individual performance (e.g., the monotony of the task). (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)