Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice.

The authors investigated 3 commonly cited experiential qualities to propose a model of the essential nature of perceived self-determination in intrinsic motivation--internal locus, volition, and perceived choice. In 3 studies, they used structural equation modeling to compare a series of nested models in which 1, 2, or all 3 of these qualities were used to identify the best fitting conceptual model. Results consistently supported the model in which internal locus and volition, but not perceived choice, constitute valid indicators of self-determination. In light of the findings, the authors proposed a modified definition for perceived self-determination and discussed the conundrum of choice by proposing the conditions under which teachers can (and cannot) expect choice to increase students' intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of praise on children's intrinsic motivation: A review and synthesis.

The authors argue against a purely behavioral definition of praise as verbal reinforcement in favor of the view that praise may serve to undermine, enhance, or have no effect on children's intrinsic motivation, depending on a set of conceptual variables. Provided that praise is perceived as sincere, it is particularly beneficial to motivation when it encourages performance attributions to controllable causes, promotes autonomy, enhances competence without an overreliance on social comparisons, and conveys attainable standards and expectations. The motivational consequences of praise also can be moderated by characteristics of the recipient, such as age, gender, and culture. Methodological considerations, such as including appropriate control groups and measuring postfailure outcomes, are stressed, and directions for future research are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A latent curve model of parental motivational practices and developmental decline in math and science academic intrinsic motivation.

A longitudinal approach was used to examine the effects of parental task-intrinsic and task-extrinsic motivational practices on academic intrinsic motivation in the subject areas of math and science. Parental task-intrinsic practices comprise encouragement of children’s pleasure and engagement in the learning process, whereas task-extrinsic practices comprise parents’ provision of external rewards and consequences contingent on children’s task performance. A conditional latent curve model was fit to data from the Fullerton Longitudinal Study (A. W. Gottfried, A. E. Gottfried, & D. W. Guerin, 2006), with academic intrinsic motivation in math and science assessed from ages 9 to 17 and parental motivational practices measured when children were age 9. The results indicated that task-intrinsic practices were beneficial with regard to children’s initial levels of motivation at age 9 as well as with regard to motivational decline through age 17. Conversely, parents’ use of task-extrinsic practices was adverse with regard to children’s motivation both at age 9 and across the 8-year interval. Theoretical implications of the findings with regard to academic intrinsic motivation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The effects of cooperation and competition on intrinsic motivation and performance": Correction to Tauer and Harackiewicz (2004).

Reports an error in "The Effects of Cooperation and Competition on Intrinsic Motivation and Performance" by John M. Tauer and Judith M. Harackiewicz (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2004[Jun], Vol 86[6], 849-861). The article contained two errors. On page 853, in Table 1, Study 4, in the Task enjoyment row, the mean for the pure coop-4 condition, which is missing, should be 3.65, and the mean for the individual condition, shown as 3.65, should be 3.63. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2004-14304-005.) The authors examined the effects of competition and cooperation on intrinsic motivation and performance in 4 studies. Across 3 behavioral studies that involved shooting a basketball, no differences were observed between competition and cooperation on task enjoyment or performance. However, the combination of competition and cooperation (intergroup competition) consistently led to higher levels of intrinsic motivation, and in 2 of the 3 studies, performance. In a questionnaire study, the authors replicated the positive effects of intergroup competition on enjoyment and examined process measures that might account for these effects. These findings suggest that competition and cooperation both have positive aspects and that structuring recreational activities to include both can facilitate high levels of both intrinsic motivation and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Substance use by college students: The role of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation for athletic involvement.

Certain types of athletic involvement may confer risk for substance use by college students. This study investigated whether motivational factors play a role in the relationship between athletic involvement and substance use. Intercollegiate athletes (n=98) and exercisers (n=120) were surveyed about substance use and motivation for athletic involvement. Athletes and exercisers who were extrinsically motivated had significantly higher rates of alcohol use than their intrinsically motivated counterparts. Results suggest that college students who are extrinsically motivated for involvement in physical activity/athletics--particularly those involved in team sports--may be in need of targeted prevention efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Equity and intrinsic motivation: The role of choice.

Research on the effects of pay on productivity and intrinsic motivation has yielded seemingly contradictory results. The "equity" literature has repeatedly found that increasing pay increases productivity (and presumably, intrinsic motivation), whereas the "insufficient/oversufficient justification" literature has found that increasing pay decreases intrinsic motivation (hence, presumably, productivity). It was hypothesized that the choice variable mediates these results. Specifically, under low choice, high pay should lead to reduced productivity or intrinsic motivation, whereas under high choice, high pay should lead to reduced productivity or intrinsic motivation. A pilot study and a subsequent experiment, both using female undergraduates, examined the effect of pay and choice on productivity or intrinsic motivation. Both studies supported these predictions. The results are discussed with regard to problems in determining the level of reward to be offered for task performance, since providing inadequate rewards may sometimes decrease, and other times increase, intrinsic motivation. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Advances in intrinsic motivation and aesthetics.

Reviews the book, Advances in Intrinsic Motivation and Aesthetics edited by Hy I. Day (1981). This collection of 20 original contributions is a fitting tribute to the late Daniel E. Berlyne. The breadth of topics covered gives one some idea of the scope of Berlyne's impact. This edited volume also guides the reader to retrace the path that bears Berlyne's footprints. It turns out to be an intrinsically motivating and rewarding journey. One is often surprised by unexpected turns, aroused by changing terrains, and curious about what lies ahead, but all the time one senses where Berlyne is heading. The destination is always clearly defined, even if the exploration seems diverse and undirected. The traveller may have the feeling of going through a complex maze of winding paths and conflicting signs, but there is a hidden pattern of simplicity detectable to an inquisitive mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic motivation in university: The role of basic psychological needs and identity formation.

This study was an investigation of the relationship between psychological need fulfillment, psychosocial development, and academic motivation in university students. Two models were tested. The 1st model, derived from developmental theories, proposed that basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness would predict identity and intimacy achievement, which would, in turn, predict academic intrinsic motivation. A 2nd model, based on self-determination theory, proposed that identity and intimacy would predict academic motivation and that this relationship would be mediated by basic psychological needs. Results from path analyses supported the model derived from self-determination theory over the model derived from developmental theories. Competence and identity were found to be the 2 constructs most strongly associated with academic motivation. These findings support the view that identity formation plays a critical role in facilitating academic motivation in university. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study.

The purpose in this study was to examine the longitudinal relationships of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with reading literacy development. In particular, the authors (a) investigated reading amount as mediator between motivation and reading literacy and (b) probed for bidirectional relationships between reading motivation and reading literacy, controlling for previous reading literacy. A total of 740 students participated in a longitudinal assessment starting in Grade 3, with further points of measurement in Grades 4 and 6. Structural equation models with latent variables showed that the relationship between intrinsic reading motivation and later reading literacy was mediated by reading amount but not when previous reading literacy was included in the model. A bidirectional relationship was found between extrinsic reading motivation and reading literacy: Grade 3 reading literacy negatively predicted extrinsic reading motivation in Grade 4, which in turn negatively predicted reading literacy in Grade 6. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention soutenue et motivation : une approche chronopsychologique.

Discusses the effects of motivation on ability to sustain attention. We emphasize the fact that motivation should be considered a masking factor in ultradian rhythmicities of cognitive efficiency. In the first part of this article, several studies are listed. These studies attempted to show behavioral fluctuations when sustained attention is required. The inconsistency of the results brought forth by such studies is pointed out. In the second part of the article, the question of the status granted to motivation in chronopsychological studies, where motivation is manipulated in several ways, is discussed. Interpretations are revisited in terms of intrinsic and/or extrinsic motivation concepts. Some of these chronopsychological studies used only extrinsic motivation whereas others created conditions in which intrinsic motivation was favoured (for example, knowledge of results, which appears to be a prominent masking factor). Finally, we propose several hypotheses in order to support the assumption of a stabilizing effect provided by intrinsic motivation. We conclude by insisting upon the necessity of involving participants in tasks requiring complex cognitive activity, which contrasts with the monotonous and too simple tasks used frequently in chronopsychological studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation.

Conventional wisdom and decades of psychological research have linked the provision of choice to increased levels of intrinsic motivation, greater persistence, better performance, and higher satisfaction. This investigation examined the relevance and limitations of these findings for cultures in which individuals possess more interdependent models of the self. In 2 studies, personal choice generally enhanced motivation more for American independent selves than for Asian interdependent selves. In addition, Anglo American children showed less intrinsic motivation when choices were made for them by others than when they made their own choices, whether the others were authority figures or peers. In contrast, Asian American children proved most intrinsically motivated when choices were made for them by trusted authority figures or peers. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analytic definitions of vocational motivation.

3 self-report inventories pertaining to vocational motivation, the Occupational Attitude Rating Scales, the Work Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Job Incentive Rankings, were administered to students in an introductory course in psychology. The 11 variables of the combined scales were subjected to a factor analysis. "These factors appeared to provide a comprehensive survey of the dimensions of vocational motivation usually mentioned in theories of occupational choice and vocational adjustment." From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5LH30C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit approaches to self-determination theory.

Self-determination theory research has demonstrated that intrinsic and identified self-regulations are associated with successful adaptation. However, few distinctions are typically made between these regulations and their outcomes. In the present studies, the associations between intrinsic and identified motivations and outcomes of psychological well-being and academic performance are compared in educational settings. In Study 1, intrinsic self-regulation predicted psychological well-being, independent of academic performance. In contrast, identified regulation predicted academic performance. Additionally, the more that students demonstrated an identified academic regulation, the more that their psychological well-being was contingent on performance. In Study 2a, priming intrinsic self-regulation led to greater psychological well-being 10 days later. In Study 2b, an implicit measure of identified regulation predicted academic performance 6 weeks later. Results indicate the need to address important distinctions between intrinsic and identified regulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of attrition on baseline comparability in randomized experiments in education: A meta-analysis.

Using meta-analysis, randomized experiments in education that either clearly did or clearly did not experience student attrition were examined for the baseline comparability of groups. Results from 35 studies suggested that after attrition, the observed measures of baseline comparability of groups did not differ more than would be expected given sampling error. The degree of either overall or differential attrition did not relate to baseline comparability, a finding that held under sensitivity analyses. Also, both overall and differential attrition rates were unrelated to posttest effect sizes. All of these analyses, however, lacked sufficient statistical power to detect small but potentially meaningful effects. Results suggest caution is warranted when applying quality scales and other blanket rules pertaining to attrition that are meant to either serve as inclusion-exclusion criteria or in scoring study quality. Much greater attention is needed to both the reporting of attrition in primary studies and to the development of conceptual and empirical models of the attrition process. These developments would aid further investigation of the relation between attrition and study outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of real-life motivation on questionnaire response.

400 male omnibus conductor job applicants were given a 2-part personality measure (emotional maladjustment and sociability), 100 each under one of the following 4 conditions: before selection, paper-and-pencil administration; after being notified of selection, paper-and-pencil administration; a box-and-card administration under each of the 2 selection circumstances. The selection circumstances significantly affected the distribution of scores on the emotional maladjustment scale, but not on the sociability scale. Method of administration did not affect the score distributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of reward contingency and performance feedback on intrinsic motivation.

93 high school students were offered performance or task-contingent rewards or no reward for doing hidden-figures puzzles. Ss offered performance-contingent rewards all received positive feedback concerning performance, and half the Ss in task-contingent and no-reward conditions received the same positive feedback. Performance-contingent rewards were found to undermine intrinsic motivation more than task-contingent ones, which produced decrements relative to control conditions of no reward, supporting E. Deci's (1972, 1975) control model. Positive feedback enhanced intrinsic motivation; this effect was independent of reward effects. A recall measure indicated that Ss receiving performance-contingent rewards remembered fewer performance-irrelevant details about the task, suggesting that rewards may affect the process of task involvement as well as its motivational outcomes. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of sources of personal satisfaction and of work motivation: Erratum.

Reports an error in the original article by P. F. Wernimont et al (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, Vol 54[1, Pt 1], 95-102). Figure 1 on page 99 is corrected. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1970-05766-001). Determines what differences technical employees see in various job factors, as they affect job effort and job satisfaction. About 775 scientists and technicians ranked personal accomplishment, praise for good work, getting along with co-workers, company location, and receiving credit for ideas as having a greater impact on personal satisfaction. Knowing what is expected of one, having a capable supervisor, having challenging work and responsibility, being kept informed, and participating in decisions, were all given more importance for their effects on motivation or job effort. These results indicate that it is incorrect to use the terms "motivator" and "satisfier" interchangeably. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The social-cognitive model of achievement motivation and the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework.

Two studies examined hypotheses drawn from a proposed modification of the social-cognitive model of achievement motivation that centered on the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Implicit theories of ability were shown to be direct predictors of performance attainment and intrinsic motivation, and the goals of the 2 × 2 framework were shown to account for these direct relations. Perceived competence was shown to be a direct predictor of achievement goals, not a moderator of relations implicit theory or achievement goal effects. The results highlight the utility of attending to the approach-avoidance distinction in conceptual models of achievement motivation and are fully in line with the hierarchical model of achievement motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of cooperative and individualistic reward on intrinsic motivation

The effects of cooperative versus individualistic reward on students' intrinsic motivation were investigated. The controlling aspects of extrinsic reward may be heightened or produce greater ego threat in the individualistic situation when compared with a group situation. We predicted that students in the cooperative social situation would show higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Fifth-grade students from existing cooperative groups were assigned randomly to receive a tangible reward based on either cooperative or individualistic achievement for completing pattern block designs. Cooperation affected intrinsic motivation positively. Students in the cooperative dyad solved the block designs more quickly, interacted positively, and viewed the task as easier than did those in the individualistic situation, and they reported that their peers were helpful. There was little evidence that the controlling functions of reward or ego-threat were factors in producing the outcome. Some evidence supporting the importance of the social nature of cooperation was provided.     

Social contagion of motivation between teacher and student: Analyzing underlying processes.

We examined (a) whether motivational orientation can spread from teachers to students during 2 consecutive teaching–learning sessions and (b) mechanisms underlying this phenomenon in a special physical education session delivered to high school students. Participants who were taught a sport activity by an allegedly paid instructor reported lower interest in learning and exhibited less persistence in a free-choice period than students taught by a supposedly volunteer instructor, despite receiving the same standardized lesson across experimental conditions. When participants taught the activity to their peers in a subsequent unconstrained learning session, lower levels of interest and behavioral persistence were also exhibited by learners who received the second lesson. A structural equation model confirmed that learners at the end of this educational chain made inferences about how intrinsically motivated their peer tutors were, on the basis of their teaching style (i.e., autonomy-supportive behaviors) and the positive affects they displayed. These inferences, in turn, affected the students' own intrinsic motivation for the activity. Results are interpreted in relation to self-determination theory, and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)