Dutch Housing Associations: Current Developments and Debates

In the Netherlands, social housing accounts for 37 per cent of the total stock, and as much as 75 per cent of the total rented stock. For observers from outside the Netherlands this seems an anachronism. The dominant institution within the Dutch social rented sector is the housing association: a private organisation, functioning within the public framework of the Housing Act. This paper puts forward an explanation of why the Netherlands' social housing sector is so large. An overview is provided of the social housing institutions at sector level, their effectiveness is evaluated, and questions on the efficiency of the housing associations are posed. Several variants for the future status of housing associations are assessed and the political choice made in 2000 by the Netherlands government is elucidated. Finally, there is a discussion about the recent proposals encouraging housing associations to opt out of the public system and some recommendations are formulated for the Dutch social housing sector. It is possible that these could provide a source of inspiration for housing politicians elsewhere in Europe.     

Social Housing as a Transitional Tenure? Reflections on the Netherlands' New Housing Memorandum 2000-2010

This contribution gives some reflections on the Netherlands' New Housing Memorandum 2000-2010, which was published on 15 May 2000. This Housing Memorandum urges the housing corporations (the social housing organisations which own 37 per cent of the housing stock) to sell 500 000 dwellings in 10 years. This seems to confirm Harloe's assertion that social housing in Europe is only a transitional tenure. Even in the Netherlands-champion of social rented housing within the European Union-the owner occupied sector would seem destined to marginalise the social rented sector in the long run. This paper argues that the housing corporations, being private, independent social entrepreneurs, will be only partially inclined to take the political message of the Housing Memorandum to heart. It is expected that the Dutch social rented sector will remain a differentiated sector and continue to blossom alongside home ownership. Harloe's theory will, in short, not be confirmed by the housing developments in the Netherlands.     

Demise of the Dutch social housing tradition: impact of budget cuts and political changes

At the beginning of the financial crisis in 2008, the Dutch housing associations were in the position to perform a kind of anti-cyclical housing production that could save, at least partially, the total housing production in the Netherlands. In this contribution, we give insight into the way the housing associations managed to fulfil this specific task and more in general if the associations managed to strengthen their position since the economic crisis. After presenting the development and the main characteristics of the Dutch social rented sector, we give an overview of the general economy of the Netherlands since 2008, which suffers from the global credit crunch, followed by the debt crisis and the Euro crisis. Because of the strong international relations and the big size of the Dutch banking sector, the Netherlands appears to be very vulnerable for international financial problems. In the aftermath of the credit crunch, the Dutch government decided to give priority to a sound public budget and announced in 2010 and 2012 huge budget cuts. The rented sector was already faced with drastic reforms and huge budget cuts by the start of the Rutte I Cabinet in 2010. These policies are described and analysed. The increased impopularity of housing associations explains that these social housing providers were extremely hit by additional budget cuts. For the housing associations, the situation is threatening. The Rutte I and Rutte II Cabinets seem not to be aware of the rich tradition of the Dutch social housing sector and want to reduce the size of the social rented sector (now: 31 %) substantially. This contribution argues that there is the danger now that the austerity measures of the current government (Rutte II) will lead to the demise of the Dutch social housing tradition, although the housing associations could be a part of the solution for alleviating the current problems on the housing and construction market.     

POLICY REVIEW The Impact of Housing Policy Changes on Housing Associations: Experiences in the Netherlands

For decades, housing associations in the Netherlands were the country's landlords of social rented housing par excellence. Presently housing associations own and administer over 90 per cent of the social rented stock, which now comprises 37 per cent of the total Dutch housing stock. The changes in Dutch housing policy which were made from 1993 onwards, have also changed the role and position of the housing associations. The financial ties binding the social housing sector and the national government have largely been dissolved. Responsibility for adequate housing was decentralised from the central government to the local authorities. Municipalities and housing associations have developed a new tradition of performance agreements on local housing policy. This paper reviews the response of housing associations to the circumstances created by the new housing policy of the 1990s.     

The Uneven Development of 'Social Rented Housing': Explaining the Historically Marginal Position of Housing Associations in Britain

The first part of this paper is concerned with rethinking the notion of social rented housing, arguing that it is appropriate to refer to a dual social rented sector, both now and in the past, and to set municipal and non-municipal models of provision alongside the dominant consumption side models of mass and residual social housing. The idea of uneven development of social rented housing in Britain refers to the numerical dominance of local authority provision, and the insignificant quantitative contribution of housing associations and their predecessors until the last years of the 20th century. The second part of the paper poses the question of why the voluntary sector failed to thrive after 1918, and examines some historical evidence from four key periods up to the early 1960s. It is argued that the poor performance of these organisations immediately after 1918 led to them failing to overcome local authority opposition and civil service scepticism in the 1930s.     

European Competition Policy and National Housing Policies: International Implications of the Dutch Case

This contribution explores the relationship between housing policy, which is the responsibility of national governments, and competition policy, including the decision on the legitimacy of state support, which is the responsibility of the European Commission (EC). The paper paints a general picture of EU policy on competition and state support and describes the Dutch social housing system. Attention then turns to the recent intervention by the European Commission in the governance of Dutch social housing and it is asked whether the factors that prompted the intervention exist in other EU member states as well. The analysis shows that this is indeed the case. It is concluded that the intervention of the EC in the Netherlands could become a precedent for other European countries, particularly for those countries that opt against a residualised social rented sector and for a competitive role of social housing providers on the housing market.     

荷兰的社会住宅：明确的传统与未知的将来

在荷兰,社会（公有）出租的住房的比重占到了35％——是欧盟范围内这一比例最高的国家。这一部门是在1901年住房法确立的公共框架下由独立经营的住房协会所主导的。本文阐述了住房协会在1995年“总收益与收支平衡实施办法”执行前后的历史渊源和发展变化。自从这一办法实施以来,住房协会不再扶政府接受实物补贴。但是．它们却变得愈加富有。这一点将会影响住房协会的社会形象。由于结合了社会与市场行为,在坚实的公共框架下运作、并经营高品质多样化的住宅,荷兰的社会住宅可为其他欧盟国家、俄罗斯和中国提供借鉴。     

The changing role of the Dutch social rented sector

The article traces the evolution of the research interests of Dieleman, an academic who combined the development of analytical models with explorations of the policy implications of the changing structure of housing markets. During his long career as a professor of geography, he championed international cooperation in research and played a major role in disseminating the results of Dutch academic studies to an international audience. His own work was concentrated on the analysis of residential mobility. But much of that work also revealed his interest in applying scholarly insights to policy issues. Throughout his career he showed a deep commitment to improving the functioning of the social rented sector in the Dutch housing market. After reviewing some of Dieleman’s major contributions to the understanding of the housing market, the article follows in his footsteps by analyzing the current use of social rented housing. In this way, this article provides an update on his field of interest based on recent survey data that underlines the validity of his insights.     

Market orientated housing policies and the position of middle-income groups in the Netherlands

As a result of the poor economic climate and neo-liberal policies, the welfare state in many European countries is becoming more residual and is directing its efforts at seriously deprived households. This development is affecting the middle-income groups, who enjoy less protection than before and are therefore forced to become more self-supporting. We can find a good illustration of this trend in the changing position of these groups on the Dutch housing market. The market orientated EU policies are denying middle-income households access to the social rented sector. Meantime, these households are already encountering accessibility problems in the owner-occupied sector due to the economic crisis and the tougher mortgage conditions set by the financial institutions. This paper describes the housing policy changes against this background and analyses the position of middle-income groups on the Dutch housing market.     

Self-esteem and Social Motivation in Age-segregated Settings

This paper is concerned with daily life and social negotiation within sheltered housing. The focus of research was to explore tenants' social interactions as older people and as members of a small community, in order to understand better how such settings affect quality of life and environmental meaning in later life. Research took place in three similar sized London schemes, all within the social rented sector. One scheme is managed by a local authority housing department, the other two by different housing associations. Analysis reveals that sheltered housing has significant social consequences in respect of tenants' experiences of this setting as a communal, age-segregated environment. In particular, exploration of the subject of self-esteem in respect to these aspects of the environment highlights both positive and negative features of social life in sheltered housing. Conclusions are reached that in evaluating this form of housing, and any such provision set up exclusively for older people, researchers and providers must pay greater attention to the subject of social interaction, and its benefits and challenges to older people.     

Housing Associations and Housing Policy in Britain Since 1989

Important changes in the pattern of new building, investment and ownership of social rented housing in Britain in the period since 1989 can be seen as moves towards a more European style of provision. Similarly, reductions in general subsidy and a switch to greater reliance on personal income related forms of assistance with housing costs are consistent with developmentselsewhere, as is concern to contain public expenditure by placing more emphasis on private finance. The themes of the paper are the growth and transformation of housing associations in Britain. The importance of stock transfers from local authorities has grown to the point where they have become the major source of growth, and it is argued that within the foreseeable future the majority of the social rented sector may be owned by housing associations or other registered social landlords. The paper looks at finance, development and governance issues, concluding that housing associations have been drawn into an ever closer relationship with the state.     

Regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts: the role of housing associations

In the Netherlands the regeneration of post-war urban districts is closely intertwined with the role of housing associations. This is hardly surprising, given that the housing associations have such a large share of the market (usually over 50%; sometimes nearly 100%) in many early post-war urban districts. This has caused a growing concentration of low-income households in those urban areas and a selective migration by middle- and high-income households from the city to the suburb. Official government policy on housing and urban renewal is directed at a redifferentiation of the urban housing stock. Specifically, the policy promotes more owner-occupation, larger and higher-quality homes, and a greater percentage of homes with a garden. This implies the demolition of social housing estates and selling social housing. The position of housing associations in the regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts is somewhat enigmatic. On the one hand, national government is expecting them to take initiative and invest in urban renewal; on the other, government is urging them to cut down their market share. How are housing associations coping with this paradoxical challenge? And what are the current national policies about the position of housing associations? Aedes (the umbrella organisation of Dutch housing associations) and the Dutch Ministry of Housing have agreed upon the so-called great transition of housing associations. Here we explain and critique this great transition, which will hamper the current regeneration of Dutch urban districts. As an alternative we present the new transition.     

Rental housing in Central and Eastern Europe as no man's land

The central question addressed in this paper is whether both thesocial and private rented sectors in Central and Eastern Europeancountries are based on robust institutions or constitute a no man'sland. The latter case is a position a landlord tries to avoid andpublic authorities try to abandon by promoting home-ownership.As we argue in this paper, during the transformation of economic and housing policy in Central and Eastern Europe,the perception of the social rental sector as a no man's landis not far from the truth. The same applies for private renting,which has the reputation of being an extension of the owner-occupiedsector. A truly professional private rented sector is still lackingin Central and Eastern Europe. National and local governments try to get rid of rented dwellings by promoting owner-occupation.If they want to prevent the rented sectors from remaining orbecoming a no man's land, they have to create regulations andinstitutions like those in West European countries to supportboth social and commercial rented housing.     

Welfare Safety Net or Tenure of Choice? The Dilemma Facing Social Housing Policy in England

This paper considers the future role of social rented housing in England. It is based on an analysis of policy trends over the past 30 years, and a critical examination of current policy dilemmas. The central contention is that there are fundamental tensions underlying the present government's policy objectives to maintain the ‘safety net’ role of social housing but at the same time widen access to the sector so that it becomes a more mixed ‘tenure of choice’. The paper charts the marked change of direction seen since 2000, with a switch from a highly rule-bound approach emphasising equity in housing allocations, to a more consumerist system stressing choice. Survey data and statistical returns are analysed to illustrate the changing mix of households entering social rented housing and to reveal the sector's varying role in regions characterised by contrasting housing market conditions. The paper charts the spread of the ‘choice-based lettings’ approach and discusses the possible implications of this development for the pattern of rehousing outcomes, and for the sector's broader role. It is concluded that, in higher demand regions such as London and the South, it remains very difficult to see how a social sector continuing to contract can widen its role from that of safety net for the most disadvantaged.     

Transforming Social Housing: Taking Stock of New Complexities

The last 10 years has been a period of rapid change in the social rented sector, reflecting broader changes in the nature of housing problems, structures of housing provision and patterns of housing consumption in the UK, rooted in fundamental shifts in the political, economic and social landscape. By way of introduction to this special issue, this paper cuts across conventional frameworks of analysis to explore the pressures and challenges raised by these changes for the social rented sector through consideration of three key facets of the contemporary housing system: market change, community dynamics and modes of governance. Within this framework, patterns of increasing differentiation and fragmentation within the UK housing system are revealed and the extent to which the transformation of the social rented sector is working with the grain of these changes is considered.     

The future of Flemish social housing

Housing policy in Belgium and Flanders is directed mainly towards encouraging home ownership. Social housing in Flanders covers a share of 5.6% of the housing stock. This social rental sector is characterized as a safety net by some housing researchers and as a general model by others. During the 1990s and the first half of this decade social housing in Flanders became under discussion. The image of social housing that dominated then was one of increasing problems with tenants and neighbourhoods. Raising the income limits to get a better social mix was advocated by the sector and afterwards by policy as one of the solutions for these problems, meanwhile also improving the revenues of the housing associations. The political discourse however was very little supported by scientific knowledge. This contribution aims at clarifying the position of the Flemish social housing by describing the historical and regulatory context and presenting the results of the Housing Survey 2005. It dispels the misunderstanding that Flemish social housing is a residual model and explores different future models. One of the conclusions is that solving problems of the social rental sector may not occur at the cost of those who need affordable housing most.

Identifying Distributive Injustice Through Housing (Mis)Match Analysis: The Case of Social Housing in Amsterdam

In this paper, an analytical model for measuring match and mismatch between social housing units and their tenants is presented and applied to the social rented housing sector of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Through the use of a large set of unique micro-data combining housing unit and household characteristics, mismatches on two key dimensions of physical adequacy and affordability and for different household types and parts of the city can be revealed. Empirically assessing the (mis)match of social housing units at a small scale – where socio and spatial (mis)matches manifest – creates opportunities for innovation in the analysis of effects of market mechanisms and local housing allocation policies. An improved understanding of these mismatches based on a strong empirical base can be related to and evaluated against different principles of distributive justice. The findings for the case of Amsterdam show that the famous large social housing stock incorporates significant mismatches. Households in the least popular parts of the city comparatively do not live affordably and large inequities exist between households based on length of residence. These findings offer a basis for further exploration of the complex of housing allocation, changing housing distributions and the resulting outcomes in terms of distributive justice.     

Defining and measuring housing affordability using the Minimum Income Standard

Abstract

There is growing concern about a crisis in housing affordability in the UK, renewing longstanding debates about what constitutes ‘affordable’ housing. The growing use of the private rented sector by low income households has also led to increased interest in understanding the impact of housing costs on living standards. This paper builds on existing work on ‘residual income’ measures of housing affordability, accepting that what households can afford to pay for housing is related to their ability to cover other costs, and so not directly proportional to income. It proposes a new approach to defining and measuring housing affordability, based on the Minimum Income Standard (MIS). The paper then uses data from the Family Resources Survey (2008/09 to 2015/16) to examine housing affordability within the rented sector across the UK, exploring the value of this measure both in revealing the scale of the ‘problem’ and assessing the likely impact of suggested interventions.     

Embedding financialization: a policy review of the English Affordable Homes Programme

Decent, affordable housing continues to be a major concern for policy-makers, providers and society at large. This paper contributes to the debate over the future of social housing in England by reviewing the Affordable Homes Programme (AHP). The AHP (2011–2015) saw the level of grant funding reduced dramatically; with the shortfall to be filled from housing associations own resources, increased rents and borrowing. To understand the implications of the AHP, this paper utilizes the concept of financialization. Financialization is a multifaceted process that seeks to explain the increased role and power of the financial markets in society. Specifically, the paper shows that the AHP leads to increased debt levels in the social housing sector, is predicated on short-termism and accumulation by dispossession. Finally, by employing financialization the paper also addresses debates about the nature of housing policy and how it can best be conceptualized.