Creation of dense hydroxyapatite (synthetic bone) by hydrothermal conversion of seashells

Strombus gigas (conch) shells and Tridacna gigas (Giant clam) shells have dense, tailored structures that impart excellent mechanical properties to these shells. In this study, conch and clam seashells were converted to hydroxyapatite (HAP) by a hydrothermal method at different temperatures and for different conversion durations. Dense HAP structures were created from these shells throughout the majority of the samples. High temperatures were found to accelerate the conversion process, however, cracks were found on the surface of the samples converted at high temperature or for very long conversion times. The conversion at 180 °C, refreshing the diammonium hydrogen phosphate [(NH₄)₂HPO₄] solution every 2 days, produced samples of good quality. Different morphologies of HAP were found in different regions of the converted shells, which may be caused by different structural morphologies and in different amounts of porosity in the original shells. Partially converted shell samples with dense HAP layers on the surface growing inward and original shell structures inside have an average fracture stress about 137–218 MPa, which is close to the mechanical strength of compact human bone.     

Fracture mechanisms of the Strombus gigas conch shell: implications for the design of brittle laminates

Flexural strength, crack-density evolution, work of fracture, and critical strain energy release rates were measured for wet and dry specimens of the Strombus gigas conch shell. This shell has a crossed-lamellar microarchitecture, which is layered at five distinct length scales and can be considered a form of ceramic plywood. The shell has a particularly high ceramic (mineral) content (99.9 wt%), yet achieves unusually good mechanical performance. Even though the strengths are modest (of the order 100 MPa), the laminated structure has a large strain to fracture, and a correspondingly large work of fracture, up to 13 kJ m^–2. The large fracture resistance is correlated to the extensive microcracking that occurs along the numerous interfaces within the shell microstructure. Implications of this impressive work of fracture for design of brittle laminates are considered.     

Compressive behavior of C/SiC composite sandwich structure with stitched lattice core

C/SiC composite sandwich structure with stitched lattice core was fabricated by a technique that involved polymer impregnation and interweaving. The mechanical behaviors of C/SiC composite sandwich structure were investigated at room temperature. The out-of-plane compressive strength was 20.97 MPa while modulus was 1473.55 MPa. The microstructural evolution on compression fracture surfaces of the stitching yarns was investigated by scanning electron microscopy, and the damage pattern of fibers on compression fracture surface was presented and discussed. Under an in-plane compression loading, the C/SiC composite sandwich structure displayed a linear-elastic behavior until failure. The peak strength and average modulus are 165.61 MPa and 19.74 GPa, respectively. The failure of the specimen was dominated by the fracture of the facesheet.     

Characteristic crystal orientation of folia in oyster shell,Crassostrea gigas

The thin sheets of calcite, termed folia, that make up much of the shell of an oyster are composed of foliated lath. Folia of the giant Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) were examined using TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and tested using microindentation and nanoindentation techniques. Analysis of the Kikuchi patterns obtained from the folia showed that there are two types (type I and type II) of preferred orientation, with an angle of around 70° between them. Nanoindentation tests showed that the folia exhibit a hardness of about 3 GPa and elastic modulus of about 73 GPa. Microcracks were generated using a microindenter in order to study the fracture mechanisms of the folia. Following on from these investigations, fracture mechanisms are discussed in conjunction with the correlation between preferred orientation and structural characteristics during cracking of the folia. Comparing the morphology and the polymorphism with nacre (also known as mother of pearl), the advantages of the relatively fast crystal growth and less amount of organic matrix in folia may have interesting implications for the development of sophisticated synthetic materials.     

Microstructure characterisation and tensile properties of 18Cr-4.5Al-0.3Zr- oxide dispersion strengthened steel

The 18Cr–4.5Al–0.3Zr–oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) steel was fabricated by mechanical alloying (MA) and spark plasma sintering (SPS) technique. A microstructural characterisation was performed on an 18Cr–4.5Al–0.3Zr–ODS steel using high angle annual dark field (HAADF) and synchrotron small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). HAADF and SAXS results showed that high-density nanoscale oxides are formed in 18Cr–4.5Al–0.3Zr–ODS steel. The oxides in the specimen can be roughly divided into two categories according to their compositions: (1) core/shell structure oxides with Al–O oxide cores and Y shells; (2) nm-scale trigonal-phase Y₄Zr₃O₁₂ oxides. In addition, tensile testing results revealed that the specimen exhibited better tensile strength and ductility as compared with another commercial ODS steels with similar composition.     

Strengthening FCC-CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloys by Mo addition

In order to strengthen the face-centered-cubic(FCC) type CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloys(HEAs), different contents of Mo(0–16 at.%, similarly hereinafter) were alloyed. Phase evolution, microstructure,mechanical properties and related mechanism of these HEAs were systematically studied. The results show that sigma phase is appeared with addition of Mo, and the volume fraction of it increases gradually from 0 to 66% with increasing Mo content. It is found that Mo is enriched in sigma phase, which indicates that Mo element is beneficial to form sigma phase. Compressive testing shows that the yield strength of the alloys increases gradually from 216 to 765 MPa, while the fracture strain decreases from 50%(no fracture) to 19% with increasing of Mo. The alloy exhibits the best compressive performance when Mo content reaches 11%, the yield strength, fracture strength and fracture strain are 547 MPa, 2672 MPa and44% respectively. The increased volume fraction of sigma phase plays an important role in improving the compressive strength of(CoCrFeMnNi)_(100-x)Mo_xHEAs.     

Hierarchically Enhanced Impact Resistance of Bioinspired Composites

An order of magnitude tougher than nacre, conch shells are known for being one of the toughest body armors in nature. However, the complexity of the conch shell architecture creates a barrier to emulating its cross‐lamellar structure in synthetic materials. Here, a 3D biomimetic conch shell prototype is presented, which can replicate the crack arresting mechanisms embedded in the natural architecture. Through an integrated approach combining simulation, additive manufacturing, and drop tower testing, the function of hierarchy in conch shell's multiscale microarchitectures is explicated. The results show that adding the second level of cross‐lamellar hierarchy can boost impact performance by 70% and 85% compared to a single‐level hierarchy and the stiff constituent, respectively. The overarching mechanism responsible for the impact resistance of conch shell is the generation of pathways for crack deviation, which can be generalized to the design of future protective apparatus such as helmets and body armor.     

Compression properties at different loading directions of as-extruded Mg–9RY–4Zn (RY: Y-rich misch metal) alloy with long period stacking ordered phase

The compression properties at different loading directions of as-extruded Mg–9RY–4Zn alloy with long period stacking ordered (LPSO) phase were investigated. The compressive yield strength (σ_0.2), ultimate compressive strength (σ) and elongation to failure (ε) are 272 MPa, 520 MPa and 19% at ED, 172 MPa, 412 MPa and 17% at TD, and 150 MPa, 370 MPa and 16% at 45° orientation, respectively. The excellent compression properties result from the 14H LPSO strips and random oriented DRX grains with 14H LPSO lamellae. Meanwhile, the as-extruded Mg–9RY–4Zn alloy exhibits obvious mechanical anisotropy. The strength at ED is much higher than that at 45° orientation. Specific to the present alloy, besides the weak basal texture, it is considered that the LPSO long strips with characteristic orientation play an important role in influencing the mechanical anisotropy.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of Nb-alloyed CoCrCuFeNi high-entropy alloys

Nb has a positive effect on improving the mechanical properties of metal materials, and it is expected to strengthen CoCrCuFeNi high-entropy alloys (HEAs) with outstanding ductility and relatively weak strength. In this paper, the alloying effects of Nb on the microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties of the (CoCrCuFeNi)_100-xNb_x HEA were investigated systematically. The result shows that Nb promotes the phase transition from FCC (face-centered cubic) to Laves phase, and the volume fractions of Laves phase increase from 0% to 58.2% as the Nb content increases. Compressive testing shows that the addition of Nb has a positive effect on improving the strength of CoCrCuFeNi HEA. The compressive yield strength of (CoCrCuFeNi)_100-xNb_x HEAs increases from 338 MPa to 1322 MPa and the fracture strain gradually reduces from 60.0% (no fracture) to 8.1% as the Nb content increases from 0 to 16 at.%. The volume fraction increase of hard Laves phase is the key factor for the strength increase, and the reduction of the VEC (valence electron concentration) value induced by the addition of Nb is beneficial for the increase of the Laves phase content in these alloys.     

The effect of moisture content on the mechanical properties of a seed shell

The mechanical properties of the seed shells of the African mongongo nut, Schinziophyton rautenenii (Euphorbiaceae), were measured by compressive C-ring tests in an air-dry condition and also after soaking in distilled water. Young's modulus was found to be about 5 GPa and the fracture strength was 40–50 MPa, for both conditions. However, fracture toughness was affected significantly by moisture content. The critical stress intensity factor, K _IC, of air-dried specimens was 27% greater and the work of fracture, R, 69% greater than those of wet specimens. This difference corresponded well with microscopic observations of the complexity of the fracture surface. Viewed either by scanning electron microscopy or confocal microscopy, cracks in the wet shell deviated neatly around individual fibres, while cracks in air-dried shells either crossed individual fibres or ran obliquely across the outer layers of the secondary cell wall leaving a feathered appearance. It is proposed that the increase in toughness of shells which would be obtained from air-drying may help protect embryonic seed tissues from predation by larger animals (e.g. vertebrates such as rodents) after abcission from the parent plant.     

Effect of pore structure on the compressive property of porous Ti produced by powder metallurgy technique

Porous Ti with an average macro-pore size of 200–400 μm and porosity in the range of 10–65% has been manufactured using polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) powders as spacer particles. The compressive strength and elastic modulus of resultant porous Ti are observed in the range of 32–530 MPa and 0.7–23.3 GPa, respectively. With the increasing of the porosity and macro-pore size, the compressive strength and modulus decrease as described by Gibson–Ashby model. The failure due to cracking (complete fracture) of the struts on porous Ti is controlled primarily by macro-pores. Fractography shows evidence of the brittle cleavage fracture mainly, but containing a few fine shallow dimples and a small amount of transcrystalline fracture of similarly oriented laths. The failure mechanism has been discussed by taking the intrinsic microstructural features into consideration.     

Nanoindentations on conch shells of Gastropoda and Bivalvia molluscs reveal anisotropic evolution against external attacks

Nanoindentation method has been used to explore, at the nanoscale, the mechanical properties of four different representative types of conch shells belonging to the two biggest classes of molluscs, Gastropoda and Bivalvia, in order to compare nanohardness and Young's modulus with respect to the microstructural anisotropic architectures. For the experimental tests a Nano Indenter XP (MTS Nano Instruments, Oak Ridge TN) has been used. The mechanical tests have been carried out on the inner and outer surfaces of the shells, as well as on their cross-section, near to the inner/outer surfaces and in the middle layer. The results confirm the three layered anisotropic architecture of the investigated conchs. On each of these 5 surfaces, 2 x 5 indentations have been performed at different maximum depth: from 250 nm to 4 microm, with a step of 250 nm, for a total of 3200 tests. The numerous observations have been analysed applying an ad hoc modification of the Weibull Statistics, suggesting a natural evolution of the shells against external attacks.     

The toucan beak: Structure and mechanical response

The structure and mechanical response of a Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco) beak were established. The beak was found to be a sandwich composite with an exterior of keratin scales (50 μm diameter and 1 μm thickness) and a core composed of fibrous network of closed-cells made of collagen. The tensile strength of the external shell is about 50 MPa. Micro- and nanoindentation hardness measurements corroborate these values. The keratin shell exhibits a strain-rate sensitive response with a transition from slippage of the scales due to release of the organic glue, at a low strain rate (5 × 10^− 5 s^− 1) to fracture of the scales at a higher strain rate (1.5 × 10^− 3 s^− 1). The closed-cell foam consists of fibers having a Young's modulus (measured by nanoindentation) of 12.7 GPa. This is twice as high as the keratin shells, which have E = 6.7 GPa. This is attributed to their higher calcium content. The compressive collapse of the foam was modeled by the Gibson–Ashby constitutive equations.There is a synergistic effect between foam and shell evidenced by a finite-element analysis. The foam stabilizes the deformation of the keratin shell by providing an internal support which increases its buckling load under compressive loading.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of ultra-fine grained MoNbTaTiV refractory high-entropy alloy fabricated by spark plasma sintering

The MoNbTaTiV refractory high-entropy alloy(RHEA) with ultra-fine grains and homogeneous microstructure was successfully fabricated by mechanical alloying(MA) and spark plasma sintering(SPS).The microstructural evolutions,mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms of the alloys were systematically investigated.The nanocrystalline mechanically alloyed powders with simple bodycentered cubic(BCC) phase were obtained after 40 h MA process.Afterward,the powders were sintered using SPS in the temperature range from 1500 ℃ to 1700 ℃.The bulk alloys were consisted of submicron scale BCC matrix and face-centered cubic(FCC) precipitation phases.The bulk alloy sintered at 1600℃ had an average grain size of 0.58 μm and an FCC precipitation phase of 0.18 μm,exhibiting outstanding micro-hardness of 542 HV,compressive yield strength of 2208 MPa,fracture strength of 3238 MPa and acceptable plastic strain of 24.9% at room temperature.The enhanced mechanical properties of the MoNbTaTiV RHEA fabricated by MA and SPS were mainly attributed to the grain boundary strengthening and the interstitial solid solution strengthening.It is expectable that the MA and SPS processes are the promising methods to synthesize ultra-fine grains and homogenous microstructural RHEA with excellent mechanical properties.     

Compressive fracture behavior of Cu-based bulk amorphous alloys

The mechanical properties of newly developed Cu_52.5 − xTi₃₀Zr_11.5Ni₆Al_x (x = 0, 1, 1.5, 2 at.%) bulk amorphous alloys were investigated under compressive condition. They exhibit high fracture strength of 2212 MPa, 2165 MPa, 2209 MPa and 2286 MPa, respectively. Three distinct vein patterns corresponding to the different zones can be observed on the fracture surfaces of the samples. Fracture propagation along two different directions and formation of striated vein patterns may contribute to the higher compressive fracture strength of the tested Cu-based bulk amorphous alloys.     

高温处理后闭孔泡沫铝压缩性能及变形机理

目的 探究温度和孔隙率对闭孔泡沫铝材料压缩力学性能和变形机理的影响。方法 将孔隙率为84.3%～87.3%的泡沫铝试件在温度25～700 ℃内进行加热处理,对处理后的试样开展准静态压缩实验。结果 在准静态压缩条件下,闭孔泡沫铝材料在不同温度加热处理后的压缩应力–应变曲线均经历了3个阶段:弹性阶段、塑性平台阶段和密实阶段。孔隙率从87.3%减小到84.3%时,其弹性模量增大了44.4 MPa,屈服强度增大了0.39 MPa,平台应力增大了0.94 MPa。孔隙率为84.3%的泡沫铝,在25 ℃时,其弹性模量为141.4 MPa、屈服强度为4.25 MPa、平台应力为4.75 MPa;当加热温度为500 ℃时,弹性模量减小到了128.0 MPa、屈服强度减小到了4.22 MPa、平台应力减小到了4.51 MPa。结论 泡沫铝的弹性模量、抗压屈服强度和平台应力均随孔隙率的增加而减小;加热温度低于500 ℃以下时,泡沫铝材料力学性能变化很小,但屈服强度和弹性模量均小幅度降低;在压缩载荷下,泡沫铝的变形破坏模式呈现出先从试件铝基体较薄弱部分产生孔壁塑性变形、孔洞坍塌,并逐渐出现断裂压缩带,直至泡沫铝孔洞完全坍塌密实。     

开口及边界条件对复合材料三分之一柱面壳压缩屈曲性能的影响

研究了完整、开口周边加强及开口加口盖3种型式的复合材料三分之一柱面壳的压缩屈曲性能,考查了3种典型复合材料柱面壳的轴压屈曲强度,分析了开口及口盖对柱面壳压缩稳定性的影响.结果表明:开口大大降低了柱面壳的轴压屈曲强度;口盖可以部分恢复其强度,但很难达到开口之前的水平.进行了开口加口盖经编织物铺层三分之一柱面壳轴向压缩试验,其轴压屈曲强度比用平面织物制造的相同结构的降低很多.为了探究其轴压屈曲强度比同类结构偏低很多的原因,进行了非均匀加载复合材料柱面壳模型有限元分析.结果表明:柱面壳边界不均匀加载会降低其承载能力,根据柱面壳刚度分布制定边界载荷可以提高其承载能力.     

Tensile deformation and failure of North American porcupine quills

Although the mechanical properties of some keratin-based biological materials have been extensively studied (i.e., wool) and others are beginning to be studied (e.g., horn, hooves and avian quills), data on the properties of porcupine quill are less common. Porcupine quill is a keratin-based biological material composed of a cylindrical outer shell with an inner foam core. The present paper reports on the physical characteristics, tensile properties and fracture behavior of North American porcupine quills conditioned at relative humidities of 65% and 100%. Increasing the water content decreased the tensile stiffness and strength and increased the strain at fracture of the porcupine quills. The tensile fracture strength of porcupine quill was found to be 146 MPa at 65% RH and 60 MPa at 100% RH. Although these values compare favorably with reported values for African porcupine quill, reported values of the tensile strengths of wool with similar moisture contents are considerably higher. The initial moduli of porcupine quill (2700 MPa at 65% RH and 1000 MPa at 100% RH) compare favorably to those reported for wool but are considerably less than previous reports for African porcupine quill. The engineering strains at fracture were measured as 25% at 65% RH and 49% at 100% RH and these values are also comparable to other keratin-based mammalian materials. Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surfaces of porcupine quills revealed that the cylindrical outer shells of quills are composed of 2–3 layers with distinctly different fracture characteristics, especially when the samples contain 100% RH. The outer layer of the porcupine quill shell appears to resist the plasticizing effects of moisture and appears to exhibit considerably less ductility than the inner layers, perhaps due to the presence of hydrophobic lipids in the outer layer.     

Fatigue strength and fracture mechanism of steel modified by super-rapid induction heating and quenching

Four kinds of surface hardened-specimens (ordinary structural steel with carbon content of 0.45% C) having hardened thicknesses of 0.7–1.8 mm were prepared using a ‘super-rapid induction heating (SRIH) system’. Rotation bending fatigue tests were performed with special focus on the effect of a hardened thickness on fatigue properties. Measurement of residual stress and observation of the fracture surface were also carried out to investigate the fracture mechanism of the specimen with a shallow hardened layer. It was found that there is not much improvement of fatigue strength at 10⁷ cycles for specimens with shallow hardened layers in spite of having a high compressive residual stress of about 1000 MPa. This is because the fatigue crack originating from inside the hardened layer leads to the final fracture of the specimen (internal fracture mode). Improvement of fatigue strength has been achieved on the specimen with thick hardened layers, such as those about 1.8 mm thick. In this case, fatigue cracks originate from inclusions located in hardened layers, which leads to final fracture (hardened-layer fracture mode).     

Characterizing strength and fracture of wood cell wall through uniaxial micro-compression test

As the potential of using natural wood derivatives in the fabrication of composites is explored, it is important to gain further understanding of the structure and properties of wood cells. Past research has focused on estimating and measuring mechanical properties of wood cell walls such as hardness and modulus of elasticity by means of nano-indentation tests. However, to date, the mechanical properties of wood cell walls have not been fully understood or documented in the literature. The research described in this paper focuses, for the first time, on investigating the strength and fracture behavior of wood cell walls through an innovative approach, the uniaxial micro-compression test. Specimens of Keranji (Dialium ssp.), a dense Asian hardwood, and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), an American softwood, were chosen as hardwood and softwood representatives for the micro-compression test. After the initial preparation by microtoming, the samples were further prepared following a novel approach, in which 37 cylindrical-shaped micro-pillars were fabricated using a Focused Ion Beam (FIB) with a voltage of 30 kV, while each micropillar was milled inside a single wood cell wall. After the dimensions of each micropillar were measured by analysis of the SEM images using ImageJ software, a micro-compression test was conducted on the micropillar at a loading rate of 20 nm per second using a Nano II Indenter system. The load–displacement curves were plotted, and the yield stress and compressive strength obtained for the Keranji cell wall were 136.5 MPa and 160 MPa, respectively; the yield stress and compressive strength of the loblolly pine cell wall were 111.3 MPa and 125 MPa, respectively. The fracture behavior of the wood micro-pillars confirmed the brittleness of the wood cell walls.