Modeling and Analysis of Active Queue Management Schemes under Bursty Traffic

Traffic congestion arising from the shared nature of uplink channels in wireless networks can cause serious problems for the provision of QoS to various services. One approach to overcome these problems is to implement some effective congestion control mechanisms at the downlink buffer at the mobile network link layer or at gateways on the behalf of wireless network access points. Active queue management (AQM) is an effective mechanism to support end-to-end traffic congestion control in modern high-speed networks. Initially developed for Internet routers, AQM is now being also considered as an effective congestion control mechanism to enhance TCP performance over 3G links. This paper proposes an analytical performance model for AQM using various dropping functions. The selection of different dropping functions and threshold values required for this scheme plays a critical role on its effectiveness. The model uses a well-known Markov-modulated Poisson process (MMPP) to capture traffic burstiness and correlations. The validity of the model has been demonstrated through simulation experiments. Extensive analytical results have indicated that exponential dropping function is a good choice for AQM to support efficient congestion control.     

主动队列管理算法的分类器实现

作为端到端拥塞控制的增强机制,主动队列管理(AQM)通过在网络中间节点有目的地丢弃分组来维持较小的队列长度和较高的链路利用率.已有的大多数主动队列管理算法沿用了随机早期探测(RED)算法首创的概率丢弃机制.本质上,判决是否丢弃分组的过程是一个依赖于网络拥塞状态的决策过程,因此,概率决策不应该是唯一的方法.在本文的研究中,我们首先归纳了理想AQM算法所应具备的品质,然后应用模式识别中分类器的设计思想提出了一种新颖简洁的主动队列管理策略实现框架,并基于Fisher线性判别方法为AQM设计了一个两维两类分类器(TCC).仿真试验表明TCC有效、敏捷、鲁棒,扩展性好,同时实现简单,计算开销小,有利于高速路由器的性能优化.     

AQM controller design for TCP networks based on a new control strategy

When the network suffers from congestion, the core or edge routers signal the incidence of congestion through the active queue management (AQM) to the sources. The time-varying nature of the network dynamics and the complex process of retuning the current AQM algorithms for different operating points necessitate the development of a new AQM algorithm. Since the non-minimum phase characteristics of the network dynamics restrict direct application of the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, we propose a compensated PID controller based on a new control strategy addressing the phase-lag and restrictions caused by the delay. Based on the unstable internal dynamics caused by the non-minimum phase characteristics, a dynamic compensator is designed and a PID controller is then allowed to meet the desired performance objectives by specifying appropriate dynamics for the tracking error. Since the controller gains are obtained directly from the dynamic model, the designed controller does not require to be tuned over the system operating envelop. Moreover, simulation results using ns2 show improvements over previous works especially when the range of variation of delay and model parameters are drastic. Simplicity, low computational cost, self-tuning structure and yet considerable improvement in performance are exclusive features of the proposed AQM for the edge or core routers.     

A fuzzy-logic control algorithm for active Queue Management in IP networks

Active Queue Management （AQM） is an active research area in the Internet community. Random Early Detection （RED） is a typical AQM algorithm, but it is known that it is difficult to configure its parameters and its average queue length is closely related to the load level. This paper proposes an effective fuzzy congestion control algorithm based on fuzzy logic which uses the predominance of fuzzy logic to deal with uncertain events. The main advantage of this new congestion control algorithm is that it discards the packet dropping mechanism of RED, and calculates packet loss according to a preconfigured fuzzy logic by using the queue length and the buffer usage ratio. Theoretical analysis and Network Simulator （NS） simulation results show that the proposed algorithm achieves more throughput and more stable queue length than traditional schemes. It really improves a router＇s ability in network congestion control in IP network.     

A genetic algorithm for the design of a fuzzy controller for active queue management

Active queue management (AQM) policies are those policies of router queue management that allow for the detection of network congestion, the notification of such occurrences to the hosts on the network borders, and the adoption of a suitable control policy. This paper proposes the adoption of a fuzzy proportional integral (FPI) controller as an active queue manager for Internet routers. The analytical design of the proposed FPI controller is carried out in analogy with a proportional integral (PI) controller, which recently has been proposed for AQM. A genetic algorithm is proposed for tuning of the FPI controller parameters with respect to optimal disturbance rejection. In the paper the FPI controller design methodology is described and the results of the comparison with random early detection (RED), tail drop, and PI controller are presented.     

A routing architecture for mobile integrated services networks

A drawback of the conventional Internet routing architecture is that its route computation and packet forwarding mechanisms are poorly integrated with congestion control mechanisms. Any datagram offered to the network is accepted; routers forward packets on a best-effort basis and react to congestion only after the network resources have already been wasted. A number of proposals improve on this to support multimedia applications; a promising example is the Integrated Services Packet Network (ISPN) architecture. However, these proposals are oriented to networks with fairly static topologies and rely on the same conventional Internet routing protocols to operate. This paper presents a routing architecture for mobile integrated services networks in which network nodes (routers) can move constantly while providing end-to-end performance guarantees. In the proposed connectionless routing architecture, packets are individually routed towards their destinations on a hop by hop basis. A packet intended for a given destination is allowed to enter the network if and only if there is at least one path of routers with enough resources to ensure its delivery within a finite time. Once a packet is accepted into the network, it is delivered to its destination, unless resource failures prevent it. Each router reserves resources for each active destination, rather than for each source–destination session, and forwards a received packet along one of multiple loop-free paths towards the destination. The resources and available paths for each destination are updated to adapt to congestion and topology changes. This mechanism could be extended to aggregate dissimilar flows as well. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

PAQM: an adaptive and proactive queue management for end‐to‐end TCP congestion control

Two functions, the congestion indicator (i.e. how to detect congestion) and the congestion control function (i.e. how to avoid and control congestion), are used at a router to support end‐to‐end congestion control in the Internet. Random early detection (RED) (IEEE/ACM Trans. Networking 1993; 1 (4):397–413) enhanced the two functions by introducing queue length averaging and probabilistic early packet dropping. In particular, RED uses an exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) queue length not only to detect incipient congestion but also to smooth the bursty incoming traffic and its resulting transient congestion. Following RED, many active queue management (AQM)‐based extensions have been proposed. However, many AQM proposals have shown severe problems with detection and control of the incipient congestion adaptively to the dynamically changing network situations. In this paper, we introduce and analyse a feedback control model of TCP/AQM dynamics. Then, we propose the Pro‐active Queue Management (PAQM) mechanism, which is able to provide proactive congestion avoidance and control using an adaptive congestion indicator and a control function under a wide range of traffic environments. The PAQM stabilizes the queue length around the desired level while giving smooth and low packet loss rates and high network resource utilization. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dual-Resource TCP/AQM for Processing-Constrained Networks

This paper examines congestion control issues for TCP flows that require in-network processing on the fly in network elements such as gateways, proxies, firewalls and even routers. Applications of these flows are increasingly abundant in the future as the Internet evolves. Since these flows require use of CPUs in network elements, both bandwidth and CPU resources can be a bottleneck and thus congestion control must deal with ldquocongestionrdquo on both of these resources. In this paper, we show that conventional TCP/AQM schemes can significantly lose throughput and suffer harmful unfairness in this environment, particularly when CPU cycles become more scarce (which is likely the trend given the recent explosive growth rate of bandwidth). As a solution to this problem, we establish a notion of dual-resource proportional fairness and propose an AQM scheme, called Dual-Resource Queue (DRQ), that can closely approximate proportional fairness for TCP Reno sources with in-network processing requirements. DRQ is scalable because it does not maintain per-flow states while minimizing communication among different resource queues, and is also incrementally deployable because of no required change in TCP stacks. The simulation study shows that DRQ approximates proportional fairness without much implementation cost and even an incremental deployment of DRQ at the edge of the Internet improves the fairness and throughput of these TCP flows. Our work is at its early stage and might lead to an interesting development in congestion control research.     

基于动态矩阵控制的主动队列管理算法

针对Internet系统,通过对流体流模型的分析,提出了一个新的预测模型.该模型形式简单,参数的计算相对容易,并且能根据当前的网络情况有效的预测拥塞窗口的变化.结合动态矩阵控制 (Dynamic Matrix Control,DMC) 理论,提出了一种新的主动队列管理算法——DMCAQM 算法,给出了DMCAQM 的详细设计过程,稳定性分析和参数选取原则.大量不同网络环境的仿真实验表明DMCAQM 算法是有效的.与PI、RaQ 和REM 等算法相比较,DMCAQM 有收敛速度快、队列抖动小的优点.同时,由于DMCAQM 的采样间隔相对较大,而算法实现简单,所以计算量小,占用的路由器资源更少.     

SLM-一种安全分层组播协议

流媒体分发的一种典型实现方法是采用具有接收方驱动拥塞控制机制的分层组播.由于目前分层组播拥塞控制协议缺乏对用户行为的限制,接收方可违规订阅上层组播组发起自利型攻击,导致非公平的带宽利用.本文提出了一种较通用的安全分层组播协议SLM(Secure Layered Multicast).在路由器辅助拥塞控制条件下,在边界路由器采用基于Shamir秘密共享体制的拥塞状态相关访问控制(CR-AC,Congestion state Related Access Control)算法,管理用户组订阅行为,避免了用户自利型攻击,并使服务提供商可根据其与用户的协约限定不同用户的最高订阅级别.分析和仿真实验表明,该协议可实时保证网络流量安全共享带宽并具有较好的可扩展性.     

Accumulation-based congestion control

This paper generalizes the TCP Vegas congestion avoidance mechanism and uses accumulation , buffered packets of a flow inside network routers, as a congestion measure based on which a family of congestion control schemes can be derived. We call this model Accumulation-based Congestion Control (ACC), which fits into the nonlinear optimization framework proposed by Kelly. The ACC model serves as a reference for packet-switching network implementations. We show that TCP Vegas is one possible scheme under this model. It is well known that Vegas suffers from round trip propagation delay estimation error and reverse path congestion. We therefore design a new Monaco scheme that solves these problems by employing an out-of-band, receiver-based accumulation estimator, with the support of two FIFO priority queues from the (congested) routers. Comparisons between these two schemes demonstrate that Monaco does not suffer from the problems mentioned above and achieves better performance than Vegas. We use ns-2 simulations and Linux implementation experiments to show that the static and dynamic performance of Monaco matches the theoretic results. One key issue regarding the ACC model in general, i.e., the scalability of bottleneck buffer requirement, and a solution using a virtual queueing algorithm are discussed and evaluated.     

Robust fuzzy neural network sliding mode control scheme for IPMSM drives

This article proposes a robust fuzzy neural network sliding mode control (FNNSMC) law for interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) drives. The proposed control strategy not only guarantees accurate and fast command speed tracking but also it ensures the robustness to system uncertainties and sudden speed and load changes. The proposed speed controller encompasses three control terms: a decoupling control term which compensates for nonlinear coupling factors using nominal parameters, a fuzzy neural network (FNN) control term which approximates the ideal control components and a sliding mode control (SMC) term which is proposed to compensate for the errors of that approximation. Next, an online FNN training methodology, which is developed using the Lyapunov stability theorem and the gradient descent method, is proposed to enhance the learning capability of the FNN. Moreover, the maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) control is incorporated to maximise the torque generation in the constant torque region and increase the efficiency of the IPMSM drives. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed robust FNNSMC, simulations and experiments are performed by using MATLAB/Simulink platform and a TI TMS320F28335 DSP on a prototype IPMSM drive setup, respectively. Finally, the simulated and experimental results indicate that the proposed design scheme can achieve much better control performances (e.g. more rapid transient response and smaller steady-state error) when compared to the conventional SMC method, especially in the case that there exist system uncertainties.     

TCP/IP网络的动态模型描述

拥塞现象成为TCP/IP网络发展面临的一个重要问题。因此，拥塞控制对TCP/IP网络的鲁棒性和稳定性具有重要作用。目前，网络拥塞控制策略主要包括两类：端到端的控制机制，如TCP拥塞控制算法；网络内部的主动队列管理(AQM)策略。但由于缺乏对网络系统动态特性的了解，这些拥塞控制策略大都基于专家经验，并没有建立完整的理论分析框架。为此，本文从数据流的角度出发，通过建立网络基本单元状态方程模型来实现IP网络系统的数学解析模型，然后用混杂系统来描述TCP带有拥塞控制策略的数据传输过程，建立了TCP/IP网络的动态模型，为网络系统中动态性能的分析、拥塞控制策略的设计奠定了基础。实验结果表明，该数学模型与NS仿真实验的结果相一致。     

区分服务网络中的TCP友好公平体系

区分服务(Differentiated Services)是IETF为实现IP服务质量(QoS)而定义的一个体系结构。研究表明,在该体系中存在不公平问题,该文将TCP友好(TCP Friendly)的概念引入到DS网络中,并定义了DS网络中的TCP友好的公平性,仿真验证了目前IETF定义的流量调节(TrafficConditioning)以及丢包策略等机制不能很好地实现TCP友好公平性,因而提出了直接拥塞控制机制来实现这一公平性。     

Adaptive fuzzy sliding mode active queue management algorithms

Active queue management (AQM) is aimed at achieving the tradeoff between link utilization and queuing delay to enhance TCP congestion control and is expected to perform well for a wider-range of network conditions. Static AQM schemes despite their simplicity, often suffer from long response time due to conservative parameter setting to ensure stability. Adaptive parameter settings, which might solve this problem, remain difficult from implementation point of view. In this paper, we propose an adaptive fuzzy sliding mode (AFSM) AQM algorithm to achieve fast response and yet good robustness. The AFSM algorithm uses the queue length and its differential as the input of AQM and adjusts fuzzy rules by the measurement of packet loss ratio dynamically. The stability analysis under heterogeneous round trip times provides guidelines for parameter settings in AFSM and guarantees that the stability of AFSM is independent of the active TCP flows. This merit as well as other performances is examined under various network environments. Compared to some typical AQMs, the AFSM algorithm trades off the throughput with queuing delay better and achieves a higher per-flow throughput. Finally, AFSM can be executed at a scale of seconds with the least fuzzy rules.     

基于显式速率的TCP友好的UDP拥塞控制策略

本文提出了一种基于显式速率的UDP拥塞控制策略：通过源端和网络中的路由器相互配合，使得实时UDP应用能够根据网络的反馈以瓶颈链路的公平带宽为速率发送数据。此种控制策略对TCP应用是友好的，并且提高了网络的吞吐量和利用率。仿真结果表明：基于显式速率的UDP拥塞控制策略与采用TFRC(TCP—Friendly Rate Control)的UDP拥塞控制策略相比，在吞吐量、TCP友好性等方面性能有较大提高。     

A Unified Approach to Congestion Control and Node-Based Multipath Routing

The paper considers a TCP/IP-style network with flow control at end-systems based on congestion feedback and routing decisions at network nodes on a per-destination basis. The main generalization with respect to standard IP is to allow routers to split their traffic in a controlled way between the outgoing links. We formulate global optimization criteria, combining those used in the congestion control and traffic engineering, and propose decentralized controllers at sources and routers to reach these optimal points, based on congestion price feedback. We first consider adapting the traffic splits at routers to follow the negative price gradient; we prove this is globally stabilizing when combined with primal congestion control, but can exhibit oscillations in the case of dual congestion control. We then propose an alternative anticipatory control of routing, proving its stability for the case of dual congestion control. We present a concrete implementation of such algorithms, based on queueing delay as congestion price. We use TCP-FAST for congestion control and develop a multipath variant of the distance vector routing protocol RIP. We demonstrate through ns2-simulations the collective behavior of the system, in particular that it reaches the desired equilibrium points.     

基于模糊神经网络的拥塞控制算法研究

本文介绍一种基于模糊神经网络的主动队列管理(AQM)算法,实现网络拥塞控制。利用神经网络来实现模糊推理,可自适应修正隶属函数的参数和加权系数,优化模糊逻辑控制器,从而达到某种性能指标的最优化。仿真结果表明,采用模糊神经网络进行流量速率预测的拥塞控制策略能够使缓冲器队列长度快速收敛到目标值,并且维持小的队列震荡。结果也表明该方法与传统的PD控制器相比具有更好的性能和鲁棒性。     

A dynamic quarantine scheme for controlling unresponsive TCP sessions

In addition to unresponsive UDP traffic, aggressive TCP flows pose a serious challenge to congestion control and stability of the future Internet. This paper considers the problem of dealing with such unresponsive TCP sessions that can be considered to collectively constitute a Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack on conforming TCP sessions. The proposed policing scheme, called HaDQ (HaTCh-based Dynamic Quarantine), is based on a recently proposed HaTCh mechanism, which accurately estimates the number of active flows without maintenance of per-flow states in a router. We augment HaTCh with a small Content Addressable Memory (CAM), called quarantine memory, to dynamically quarantine and penalize the unresponsive TCP flows. We exploit the advantage of the smaller, first-level cache of HaTCh for isolating and detecting the aggressive flows. The aggressive flows from the smaller cache are then moved to the quarantine memory and are precisely monitored for taking appropriate punitive action. While the proposed HaDQ technique is quite generic in that it can work with or without any AQM scheme, in this paper we have integrated HaDQ and an AQM scheme to compare it against some of the existing techniques. For this, we extend the HaTCh scheme to develop a complete AQM mechanism, called HRED. Simulation-based performance analysis indicates that by using a proper configuration of the monitoring period and the detection threshold, the proposed HaDQ scheme can achieve a low false drop rate (false positives) of less than 0.1%. Comparison with two AQM schemes (CHOKe and FRED), which were proposed for handling unresponsive UDP flows, shows that HaDQ is more effective in penalizing the bandwidth attackers and enforcing fairness between conforming and aggressive TCP flows.     

Advances in internet congestion control

In this survey, we first review the concept of congestion control with a focus on the Transmission Control Protocol⁄Internet Protocol (TCP⁄IP). We describe many recently proposed algorithms to combat congestion and improve performance, particularly active queue management (AQM) algorithms such as random early detection (RED) and its variants. We then survey control-theoretic analysis and design of TCP congestion control with an AQM scheme. In addition, we discuss three problems associated with AQM proposals: parameter setting, the insensitivity to the input traffic load variation, and the mismatch between macroscopic and microscopic behavior of queue length dynamics. As alternatives to AQM algorithms, we also survey architectural approaches such as modification of source or network algorithms, and economic approaches including pricing or optimization of allocated resources. Finally, we list many open issues that persist in the design, operation, and control of the Internet.