Oxidative stability and characterization of oleogels obtained from safflower oil-based beeswax and rice bran wax and their effect on the quality of cake samples

Safflower oil-based oleogels were produced from beeswax and rice bran wax. Oleogels demonstrated higher oxidative stability than shortening at the cooking temperature. Peroxide values in shortening, rice bran wax oleogels, and beeswax oleogels samples were found in the range of 4.8–27.76, 13.21–20.45 and 4.30–7.72 meqO₂kg⁻¹ oil. Following oleogelation, there was no significant change in fatty acid composition of safflower oil. In addition, after baking process, the changes in the major fatty acids were not determined to be significant. Solid fat content ratios (carried out at 35°C) of rice bran wax oleogels, in beeswax oleogels and in shortening samples were defined in the range of 4.10%–7.70%, 0.80%–5.00%, and 9.61%, respectively. The highest oil binding capacity was revealed in beeswax oleogels with 99.93%–99.98%. The shortest crystallization time was determined as 3 min in oleogel containing 10% rice bran wax. Cakes consisted of oleogel were acceptable in terms of texture and sensory properties compared to cake produced with shortening. Sensory results revealed that some cakes produced with oleogels were found to be more acceptable as compared with control group samples. In this respect, oleogels produced with safflower oil-based beeswax and rice bran wax could be used instead of commercial solid fat widely used in the cake industry.     

Physical Properties of Beeswax,Sunflower Wax,and Candelilla Wax Mixtures and Oleogels

To be able to tailor and optimize the physical properties of oleogels for various food applications, more information is needed to understand how different gelators interact. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the interactions between binary mixtures of beeswax (BW), candelilla wax (CLW), and sunflower wax (SFW) in pure form as well as in 5% wax oleogels made with soybean oil, in terms of their crystallization and melting properties, crystal morphology, solid fat content, and gel firmness. CLW:BW mixtures had eutectic melting properties, and oleogels from these mixtures with 40:60 to 90:10 CLW:BW were firmer compared to oleogels made with one wax. The main components in SFW and BW appeared to cocrystallize or crystallize at the same temperature, but nonlinear changes in melting point and solid fat content profile of oleogels prepared with the mixed waxes indicated that SFW dominated oleogel formation. In addition, oleogels prepared with mixtures of SFW and BW had lower firmness compared to oleogels prepared with one wax, indicating an incompatibility between the two waxes. The main wax components in SFW and CLW never cocrystallized, and low levels of CLW appeared to prevent SFW from forming a crystalline platelet network. This resulted in low firmness of oleogels made from mixtures of 90:10 to 60:40 SFW:CLW compared to oleogels prepared with one wax. However, the firmest oleogels of all mixtures were made from 10:90 SFW:CLW. Changes in gel firmness and melting properties with mixed wax oleogels were likely to be due to changes observed in the crystal size and morphology. In addition, the firmest gels were shown to result from mixtures that were predicted to have >40% hydrocarbon content, and a high hydrocarbon to wax ester ratio, but minor components such as free fatty acids and fatty alcohols may have also influenced firmness.     

Effect of oil unsaturation and wax composition on stability,properties and food applicability of oleogels

Oleogelation is emerging as one of the most exigent oil structuring technique. The main objective of this study was to formulate and characterize rice bran/sunflower wax-based oleogels using eight refined food grade oils such as sunflower oil, mustard oil, soybean oil, sesame oil, groundnut oil, rice bran oil, palm oil, and coconut oil. Stability and properties of these oleogels with respect to oil unsaturation and wax composition were explored. Sunflower wax exhibited excellent gelation ability even at 1%–1.5% (w/v) concentration compared to rice bran wax (8%–10% w/v). As the oleogelator concentration increased, peak melting temperature also increased with increase in strength of oleogels as per rheological studies. X-ray diffraction and morphological studies revealed that oleogel microstructure has major influence of wax composition only. Sunflower wax oleogels unveiled rapid crystal formation with maximum oil binding capacity of 99.46% in highly unsaturated sunflower oil with maximum polyunsaturated fatty acid content. Further, the applicability of this wax based oleogels as solid fat substitute in marketed butter products was also scrutinized. The lowest value of solid fat content (SFC) in oleogel was 0.20% at 25°C, resembling closely with the marketed butter products. With increase in oil unsaturation, oleogels displayed remarkable reduction in SFC. Depending upon prerequisite, oleogel properties can be modulated by tuning wax type and oil unsaturation. In conclusion, this wax-based oleogel can be used as solid fat substitute in food products with extensive applications in other fields too.     

The Effect of Addition of High-Melting Monoacylglycerol and Candelilla Wax on Pea and Faba Bean Protein Foam-Templated Oleogelation

Use of oleogels prepared from hydrocolloids has recently gained considerable attention as an alternative for trans and saturated fats. Lately, pulse proteins such as faba bean protein and pea protein have been successfully used to prepare oleogels using a foam-templated approach. Although the pulse proteins are healthy oleogelators, high oil loss and low quality of cake baked using pulse protein-stabilized oleogels due to its poor rheological properties challenged its use. The present study explored whether the addition of small amount of high-melting monoglyceride (MAG) or candelilla wax (CW) can be used to improve the oil binding capacity, rheological properties, and baking qualities of pulse protein-stabilized oleogels composed of 5% faba bean or pea protein concentrate with 0.25% xanthan gum foams. Different concentrations (0.5–3%) of MAG or CW were dissolved in canola oil at 80 °C, followed by addition into the freeze-dried protein-polysaccharide foams (pH 7) and quickly transferred to a refrigerator to facilitate the formation of oleogels. The crystallized additives were found to be reinforcing the protein foam network in the oleogels. With increase in concentration of CW and MAG, the oil binding capacity, firmness, cohesiveness, and storage moduli of the oleogels were increased. Oleogels with and without MAG or CW were then characterized and tested for their performance as a shortening replacer in model baked cakes. Findings showed improved textural properties of cake upon addition of MAG in the foam-templated oleogels, however, compared to the shortening, negative effect on cake hardness and chewiness was still observed with the oleogels.     

Properties of Oleogels Formed With High‐Stearic Soybean Oils and Sunflower Wax

In an effort to develop alternatives for harmful trans fats produced by partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils, oleogels of high‐stearic soybean (A6 and MM106) oils were prepared with sunflower wax (SW) as the oleogelator. Oleogels of high‐stearic oils did not have greater firmness when compared to regular soybean oil (SBO) at room temperature. However, the firmness of high‐stearic oil oleogels at 4 °C sharply increased due to the high content of stearic acid. High‐stearic acid SBO had more polar compounds than the regular SBO. Polar compounds in oil inversely affected the firmness of oleogels. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that wax crystals facilitated nucleation of solid fats of high‐stearic oils during cooling. Polar compounds did not affect the melting and crystallization behavior of wax. Solid fat content (SFC) showed that polar compounds in oil and wax interfered with crystallization of solid fats. Linear viscoelastic properties of 7% SW oleogels of three oils reflected well the SFC values while they did not correlate well with the firmness of oleogels. Phase‐contrast microscopy showed that the wax crystal morphology was slightly influenced by solid fats in the high‐steric SBO, A6.     

Separation and Analysis of Wax from Egyptian Sugar Cane Filter Press Cake

Waxes from filter press cake of the by-product of the Sugar Cane Industry gained from various Egyptian Cane Sugar Factories were studied. A method for continuous extraction of wax filter cake using different solvent i. e. toluene, naphtha, acetone, fractionated gasoline, denatured and refined alcohol was investigated. The speed and ease of extraction using different solvents were compared. By using toluene as solvent the highest percentage of crude wax was obtained from Edfu, which gave 14.55%, while extraction with refined alcohol produced 12.65% crude wax from Qus. Decolorization of crude wax was carried out by sodium hypochlorite, nitric acid, chlorine, sulphur dioxide and acetone. The pure wax was separated from the fatty oil fraction by fractional crystallization from 70° to 0° C. The greater portion of wax can be obtained at 30° C. Hard, brittle wax was obtained between 45° to 20° C. The crude and refined waxes had properties comparable to carnauba wax and other commercial waxes. The Egyptian cane sugar waxes can be utilized in paper, ink, coating, varnishes, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and fertilizer industries.     

Crude Wax Extracted from Rice Bran Oil Improves Oleogel Properties and Oxidative Stability

Crude wax extracted from rice bran oil (RBO) is used to improve the oleogel properties and oxidative stability of RBO. The effect of crude rice bran wax (CrBW) on the formation characteristics and oxidative stability of oleogels is discussed. The results show that oleogels can be formed with 7.0 wt% CrBW at 20 °C. As the concentration of CrBW increases from 7.0 to 11.0 wt%, the hardness and solid fat content (SFC) of the oleogels increase significantly, and the oleogels are primarily β' crystals. Moreover, oleogel crystals formed with 5 and 7 wt% CrBW are flocculent; when the amount included is 9%, the oleogel crystals are transformed into long dendrites, and the density rises. After 90 days of storage at 20 °C, the peroxide value of oleogels formed with 9.0 wt% CrBW slowly rises from 3.21 to 6.52 mmol kg⁻¹. Practical Applications: Oleogels prepared here by CrBW and RBO are an innovative structural lipid without trans fats. Useful information on the rich fats and nutrients in CrBW is provided, which reduces the production cost and improves the industrial production capacity.     

Performance evaluation of shortenings based on palm oil and butterfat in yellow cake

Shortenings based on palm oil (PO), combinations of PO and butter fat (BF) at a ratio of PO:BF = 3:2 and PO:BF = 2:3 and 100% BF were evaluated. In the case of PO shortening, 0.2% diacetyl flavour was added during processing. Baking tests indicated that combination of PO with BF produced higher specific batter volume and specific cake volume compared with PO shortening or 100% BF. The addition of BF to PO resulted in softer cake texture as indicated by instrumental measurement. Sensory evaluation indicated that cakes made with PO shortening with added diacetyl flavour (at 0.2%) resulted in significantly (p<0.05) higher scores in terms of grain size, softness and flavour compared to cakes made with 100% BF. However, there was no significant difference in the sensory scores of the cakes made with PO, PO:BF = 3:2 and PO:BF = 2:3 shortenings. Thus PO helped to improve performance of BF in production of yellow cake.     

Differential effects of dietary linoleic and α-linolenic acid on lipid metabolism in rat tissues

Comparative effects of feeding dietary linoleic (safflower oil) and α-linolenic (linseed oil) acids on the cholesterol content and fatty acid composition of plasma, liver, heart and epididymal fat pads of rats were examined. Animals fed hydrogenated beef tallow were used as isocaloric controls. Plasma cholesterol concentration was lower and the cholesterol level in liver increased in animals fed the safflower oil diet. Feeding the linseed oil diet was more effective in lowering plasma cholesterol content and did not result in cholesterol accumulation in the liver. The cholesterol concentration in heart and the epididymal fat pad was not affected by the type of dietary fatty acid fed. Arachidonic acid content of plasma lipids was significantly elevated in animals fed the safflower oil diet and remained unchanged by feeding the linseed oil diet, when compared with the isocaloric control animals fed hydrogenated beef tallow. Arachidonic acid content of liver and heart lipids was lower in animals fed diets containing safflower oil or linseed oil. Replacement of 50% of the safflower oil in the diet with linseed oil increased α-linolenic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in plasma, liver, heart and epididymal fat pad lipids. These results suggest that dietary 18∶2ω6 shifts cholesterol from plasma to liver pools followed by redistribution of 20∶4ω6 from tissue to plasma pools. This redistribution pattern was not apparent when 18∶3ω3 was included in the diet.     

Sunflower Oil–Beeswax Oleogels Are Promising Frying Medium for Potato Strips

Sunflower oil–beeswax oleogels at 3% (BWO-3) and 8% (BWO-8) organogelator concentration are prepared to evaluate oleogels as frying medium for potato strip frying against commercial sunflower oil (SO). Rheological and thermal analyses of oleogels prove that the samples are fully solid (20±3 °C) and totally liquid (180 °C), and thermoreversible. Fresh and used (after frying) fat analyses show that free fatty acidity (FFA), peroxide value (PV) and total polar materials (TPM) are enhanced in all samples at the 7th h, but the relative enhancement levels are lower in oleogel samples. Potato strips fried in oleogels absorb significantly less oil (11.97% and 12.07%) than the control sample (15.20%). Potatoes fried in oleogels are also more bright and yellower than the control sample. Textural profile of the fried potatoes indicates that the samples fried in oleogels are harder, springier, and gummier than that of the control sample. Sensory analysis shows that oleogel fried potatoes get higher sensory scores. Also, overall acceptability of potatoes fried in BWO-8 sample is the highest (8.50) among all. The prepared oleogels are found quite promising frying medium in this study. Further studies with other types of oleogels in extended period frying of various foods are suggested. Practical applications: The development of innovative frying techniques to produce healthier products with lower fat and calorie values are still a remarkable research area. Oleogelation is an emerging strategy used for solid-like oil designing and based on the formation of 3D networks by the addition of organogelators. Oleogelation is accepted as a healthy strategy to structure liquid oils into solid consistency, and oleogels have great edible applications in processed foods, and can be used as a frying medium. This work can guide the use of sunflower oil–beeswax oleogels as a frying medium and allow the development of more healthy fried snacks.     

Oleogels Based on Palmitic Acid and Safflower Oil: Novel Formulations for Ocular Drug Delivery of Voriconazole

The gelation of the vegetable oils using fat crystals has gained significant attention in recent years. These formulations have been explored for food and pharmaceutical applications. The alteration in the properties of palmitic acid (20–40% w/w) and safflower oil oleogels is extensively studied at microscopic and macroscopic levels. The thermal and mechanical stability of the oleogels is improved when the proportion of the palmitic acid content is increased. However, under stress, the fat crystal network junction zones of the oleogels with higher proportions of palmitic acid undergo disruption. The changes in the properties of the oleogels are due to the alteration in the molecular packing, crystallite size, and lattice strain of the fat crystal network. The alteration in the properties is governed by the changes in the extent of inter‐ and intramolecular hydrogen bonding within the components of the oleogels. The oleogels can demonstrate the ability to deliver the drug, voriconazole, across the corneal tissue. Further, the prepared oleogels are biocompatible to murine fibroblast cells and do not elicit adverse reactions when instilled within the ocular sac of rabbits. The results suggest that the oleogels can be tried as ocular delivery vehicles. Practical Applications: The delivery of drug into the internal structure of the eye is a great challenge for the ophthalmologists. Usually no more than 1% of the drug can be delivered through conventional techniques. Various researchers have proposed the use of lipid‐based ocular drug delivery systems. Some of them include solid liquid nanoparticles, emulsions, and liposomes. However, the preparation of these formulations requires a tedious process. Keeping this in mind, it is proposed to synthesize oleogel as probable ocular drug delivery system.     

Structure and Physical Properties of Plant Wax Crystal Networks and Their Relationship to Oil Binding Capacity

The microstructure, melting and crystallization behavior, rheological properties and oil binding capacity of crystalline networks of plant-derived waxes in edible oil were studied and then compared amongst different wax types. The critical concentrations for oleogelation of canola oil by rice bran wax (RBX), sunflower wax, candelilla wax, and carnauba wax were 1, 1, 2, and 4 %, respectively, suggesting RBX and sunflower wax are more efficient structurants. A phenomenological two-phase exponential decay model was implemented to quantify the oil-binding capacity of these oleogels. Parameters obtained from this empirical model were then evaluated against microscale structural attributes such as crystal size, mass distribution and porosity to determine the structural dependence of oil-binding capacity. Gels containing candelilla wax exhibited the greatest oil-binding capacity, as they retained nearly 90 % of their oil. This is due to the small crystal size as well as the spatial distribution of these crystals. Using a microscopic to macroscopic approach, this study examines how the structural characteristics unique to each wax and resulting oleogel system affect functionality and macroscopic behavior.     

Influence of sources of dietary oils on the life span of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats

In recent studies, the life span of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive (SHRSP) rats was altered by a variety of dietary fats. It was relatively shorter in rats fed canola oil as the sole source of fat. The present study was performed to find out whether the fatty acid profile and the high content of sulfur compounds in canola oil could modulate the life span of SHRSP rats. SHRSP rats (47 d old, n=23/group) were matched by body weight and systolic blood pressure and fed semipurified diets containing 10% canola oil, high-palmitic canola oil, low-sulfur canola oil, soybean oil, high-oleic safflower oil, a fat blend that mimicked the fatty acid composition of canola oil, or a fat blend high in saturated fatty acids. A 1% sodium chloride solution was used as drinking water to induce hypertension. After consuming the diets for 37 d, five rats from each dietary group were killed for collection of blood and tissue samples for biochemical analysis. The 18 remaining animals from each group were used for determining their life span. The mean survival time of SHRSP rats fed canola oil (87.4±4.0 d) was not significantly different (P>0.05) from those fed low-sulfur canola oil (89.7±8.5 d), suggesting that content of sulfur in canola oil has no effect on the life span of SHRSP rats. The SHRSP rats fed the noncanola oil-based diets lived longer (mean survival time difference was 6–13 d, P<0.05) than those fed canola and low-sulfur canola oils. No marked differences in the survival times were observed among the noncanola oil-based groups. The fatty acid composition of the dietary oils and of red blood cells and liver of SHRSP rats killed after 37 d of treatment showed no relationship with the survival times. These results suggest that the fatty acid profile of vegetable oils plays no important role on the life span of SHRSP rat. However, phytosterols in the dietary oils and in liver and brain were inversely correlated with the mean survival times, indicating that the differential effects of vegetable oils might be ascribed, at least partly, to their different phytosterol contents.     

Effects of randomization of partially hydrogenated corn oil on fatty acid and cholesterol absorption,and tissue lipid levels in rats

Randomization of partially hydrogenated corn oil containing approximately 45% oftrans octadecenoic acid only slightly, but not significantly, increased the lymphatic fatty acid absorption in rats. No effect of randomization was observed on cholesterol absorption. When rats were fed these fats at the 8.8% level (with 1.2% safflower oil) for three weeks, the concentrations of serum cholesterol, and serum and liver phospholipid were significantly higher in randomized fat than in control fat, which was composed of 9% high-oleic safflower oil and 1% palm oil. Liver cholesterol tended to be higher in randomized fat. In contrast, nonrandomized fat was not hyperlipidemic compared to control fat. Although the fatty acid composition of liver phospholipids suggested a possible interference oftrans fatty acid with the metabolism of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid, there was no effect of randomization. In the two hydrogenated fat groups,trans octadecenoic acid was incorporated and distributed similarly in adipose tissue triacylglycerol. These observations indicated that randomization of partially hydrogenated fat is not beneficial to various lipid parameters in rats.     

Effect of essential fatty acid deficiency on lipid metabolism in isolated fat cells of epididymal fat pads of rats

Lipogenesis, lipolysis, and stimulation of glucose conversion into lipid by insulin or prostaglandin E₁ were studied in isolated fat cells of the epididymal fat pads of rats fed a fat-free diet or this diet supplemented with 10% hydrogenated coconut oil or 10% safflower seed oil. Changes in fatty acid composition, characteristic of an essential fatty acid deficiency, were well advanced in the neutral lipid but had only started in the polar lipid of the fat cells of the epididymal fat pads of animals 3 months after weaning. Cellularity of the epididymal fat pads, as indicated by protein to lipid ratio of the fat cells, was influenced greatly by hydrogenated coconut oil in the diet irrespective of an essential fatty acid deficiency. Lipogenesis was increased in the fat cells of the animals fed the hydrogenated coconut oil diet 5 weeks after weaning but was not significantly different from that of the safflower fed animals 3 months after weaning. Incorporation of glucose into lipid, oxidation to CO₂, and basal lipolysis were not significantly different in the fat cells of the essential fatty acid deficient animals from those fed safflower oil 3 months after weaning, except in animals of the fat-free group based upon cell lipid. However, conversion of glucose to free fatty acid was significantly greater in the isolated fat cells of animals fed either the hydrogenated coconut oil or the fat-free diet than in those of animals fed the safflower oil supplement. The incorporation of glucose into lipid by isolated fat cells was stimulated significantly by insulin in young animals fed a fat-free diet, but the effect on lipogenesis appeared to be reversed in the fat cells of animals receiving safflower seed oil 3 months after weaning. Prostaglandin E₁ also appeared to stimulate the incorporation of glucose into lipid in the fat cells of the older animals receiving safflower seed oil. Differences in osmolarity produced large differences in utilization of glucose and release of lipid from isolated fat cells, but no significant differences were observed between the cells from animals fed the fat-free diet and those from the controls fed safflower oil. The results demonstrated the effects of diets containing fat or no fat on enzyme activities and membrane properties of fat cells of the epididymal fat pads of essential fatty acid deficient rats.     

Increasing the firmness of wax-based oleogels using ternary mixtures of sunflower wax with beeswax:candelilla wax combinations

Oleogels were prepared with 5% wax in soybean oil using mixtures of beeswax (BW) and candelilla wax (CLW) with ratios of 10:90, 30:70, 50:50, and 60:40 BW:CLW, and the same series where 10% of the total wax was substituted with sunflower wax (SFW). The hypothesis that SFW would increase the firmness of the oleogels without affecting the melting properties was tested. Firmness of one-wax oleogels decreased from SFW > CLW > BW. Oleogels with 50:50 BW:CLW and 60:40 BLW:CLW had equal firmness to pure 5% SFW oleogels. SFW significantly increased oleogel firmness and reduced the softening that occurred between 4°C and 22°C. Increased firmness was also found with rice bran wax and behenyl-behenate (C44) addition, but not with wax esters with chain lengths ranging from 30 to 40 carbons (C30 to C40). By differential scanning calorimetry, SFW significantly decreased the melting point of oleogels with 10:90 and 30:70 BW:CLW mixtures but significantly increased the melting point of those with 50:50 and 60:40 BW:CLW mixtures. However, the solid fat content melting curves were not significantly influenced by SFW addition. These results indicate that mixed wax oleogels had greater hardness and elasticity, and that the long chain wax esters contributed by SFW helped to improve the strength of oleogels without negatively affecting their melting properties.     

Characteristics and performance of some commercial shortenings

Six different brands of commercial shortenings were evaluated for their physicochemical characteristics and baking performance of cakes and biscuits (cookies). Three of the samples were locally made shortenings supplied by three different refineries (coded A, B and C), and the other three samples were imported shortenings obtained from supermarkets in Kuala Lumpur (D, E and F). Analyses and evaluations included slip melting point, solid fat content, fatty acid composition, triglyceride composition, creaming power and baking performance. All of the shortenings had slip melting points above 40°C. Sample A had the highest solid fat content at all temperatures. However, in terms of baking performance in cakes, sample C gave the highest volume, followed closely by samples B and A. Results indicated that the cakes were significantly different (P < 0.05) in terms of grain size and eating quality. Sensory evaluation on biscuits indicated that samples made with shortening D were preferred by a majority of the sensory panel, followed by those made with shortening C. The third, in order of panel preference, was biscuits made with shortening E.     

Effect of Interesterified Fats and Isolated trans Fatty Acids on Serum Lipid Classes in Cholesterol-Bile Salt Stressed Rats

Interesterified plastic fat products based on a) sal fat and groundnut oil (30: 70, w/w;P/S,0.8) (sal-GNO);b) vanaspati, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and groundnut oil (40:60; P/S, 1.0; isolated trans fatty acid content 17%) (vanaspati-GNO);c) cottonseed oil (P/S, 1.5) (CSO) and d) sal fat and safflower oil (50:50, P/S, 1.3) (sal-saff) were prepared using dry sodium methoxide as the catalyst. The products had slip points of 33?34°C. These products, their original blends, safflower oil (P/S, 8.5) and a blend of vanaspati and safflower oil (50 : 50, P/S, 2.8 and isolated trans fatty acid content 22%) (vanaspati-saff) were tested for hypolipidaemic effect (serum total cholesterol, total lipids, triglycerides and phospholipids) in cholesterol-bile salt stressed rats. All the test fats having linoleic acid content varying from 21.9-76.6% and P/S ratio from 0.8 to 8.5 and fed at 10% level providing 23% calorie were found to be superior to vanaspati (P/S, 0.16, 3% linoleic, 43% isolated trans fatty acids). P/S ratio of 1.5 and linoleic content of 30% in fat were found to be optimum for maximum hypolipidaemic effect at above dietary regimen. Fat and cholesterol contents of liver of animals, fed test lipids were significantly lower than that of animals fed vanaspati. when linoleic acid content of the product was comparatively low (e.g. sal-GNO, 25%), the process of rearrangement reduced the cholesterol content of liver. With high linoleic acid content (CSO, 48.2% or sal-saff, 40.4%) interesterification was without any effect. Hypolipidaemic effect of interesterified products was similar to that observed with original materials. Thus, the above quality of a fat having characteristics within the above ranges does not depend upon the distribution of acyl groups in glyceride molecules. Isolated trans fatty acids behaved more or less like a saturated fatty acid in elevating serum lipids. Vanaspati was found to be highly hyperlipidaemic.     

Effect of n−3 fatty acid supplementation on lipid peroxidation and protein aggregation in rat erythrocyte membranes

Human erythrocytes in the circulation undergo dynamic oxidative damage involving membrane lipid peroxidation and protein aggregation during aging. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of n−3 fatty acid supplementation on lipid peroxidation and protein aggregation in the circulation and also the in vitro susceptibility of rat erythrocyte membranes to oxidative damage. Wistar male rats were fed a diet containing n−6 fatty acid-rich safflower oil or n−3 fatty acid-rich fish oil with an equal amount of vitamin E for 6 wk. n−3 Fatty acid content in erythrocyte membranes of rats fed fish oil was significantly higher than that of rats fed safflower oil. The degree of membrane lipid peroxidation and protein aggregation of rats fed fish oil was not significantly higher than that of rats fed safflower oil when the amounts of phospholipid hydroper-oxides, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, and detergent-insoluble protein aggregates were measured. When isolated erythrocytes were oxidized under aerobic conditions in the presence of Fe(III), the degree of membrane lipid peroxidation of erythrocytes from rats fed fish oil was increased to a greater extent than that of rats fed safflower oil, whereas the degree of membrane protein aggregation of both groups was increased in a similar extent. Hence, n−3 fatty acid supplementation did not affect lipid peroxidation and protein aggregation in membranes of circulating rat erythrocytes, and the supplementation increased the susceptibility of isolated erythrocytes to lipid peroxidation, but not to protein aggregation, under the aerobic conditions. If a sufficient amount of vitamin E is supplied, n−3 fatty acid supplementation may give no undesirable oxidative effects on rat erythrocytes in the circulation.     

Some chemical processes utilizing oleic safflower oil

Oleic safflower seed (UC-1) produces an oil containing approximately 80% oleic acid and 12% linoleic acid. The oil is a source of high quality oleic acid, and fatty acids from the oil may be used without further separation in some applications where technical oleic acid is now used, since oleic safflower free fatty acids have a a higher oleic acid content than good commercial grades of oleic acid. A high purity oleic acid can be produced by urea fractionation. Ozonization of the oil followed by reductive cleavage yields pelargonaldehyde and nearly colorless aldehyde oils. Ozonization of a crude mixture of oleic safflower acids followed by oxidative cleavage provides high yields of azelaic acid and pelargonic acid. In contrast, ozonization of free fatty acids from polyunsaturated vegetable oils produces azelaic acid and mixtures of lower molecular weight carboxylic acids with smaller amounts of pelargonic acid. Furtherore, ozone consumption is lower and reaction time is shorter when oleic safflower acids are used in place of more highly unsaturated fatty acids.