Donor insemination: child development and family functioning in lesbian mother families

Findings are presented of a comparative study investigating the family relationships and the emotional and gender development of children raised in lesbian mother families. A total of 30 lesbian mother families with 4-8 year old children created as a result of donor insemination (DI) were compared with 38 heterosexual families with a DI child and with 30 heterosexual families who had a naturally conceived child. A variety of assessment measures, including a standardized interview and questionnaires from the parents and psychological testing of the child were used to collect the data. The quality of the couples' relationships and the quality of the mother-child interaction did not differ between lesbian mother families and either of the heterosexual family groups. The quality of the interaction between the social mother and the child in lesbian families was superior to that between the father and the child in both groups of heterosexual families. Childrens' own perception of their parents was similar in all family types; the social mother in lesbian families was regarded by the child to be as much a 'parent' as the father in both types of heterosexual families. With regard to their emotional/behavioural development, boys and girls raised in lesbian mother families were well adjusted and their gender role development did not differ from that of children raised in heterosexual families. These results indicate that child and family development in lesbian mother families is similar to that of heterosexual families.     

Division of labor among lesbian and heterosexual parents: Associations with children's adjustment.

This study compared lesbian and heterosexual parents' division of household labor, satisfaction with division of labor, satisfaction with couple relationships, and associations of these variables with psychological adjustment of children. Participating lesbian (n?=?30) and heterosexual (n?=?16) couples all became parents by using anonymous donor insemination and had at least 1 child of elementary-school age. Although both lesbian and heterosexual couples reported relatively equal divisions of paid employment and of household and decision-making tasks, lesbian biological and nonbiological mothers shared child-care tasks more equally than did heterosexual parents. Among lesbian nonbiological mothers, those more satisfied with the division of family decisions in the home were also more satisfied with their relationships and had children who exhibited fewer externalizing behavior problems. The effect of division of labor on children's adjustment was mediated by parents' relationship satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facteurs reliés au choix de la partenaire qui portera l'enfant chez de futures mères lesbiennes.

This study looks at factors associated to the choice of the surrogate mother in lesbian couples who want to have a child through insemination. Fifty same-sex partners (25 couples) have completed questionnaires evaluating various individual, marital, parental and social aspects associated to parenthood. Variance analysis of theses aspects have shown the effects of two factors that is, the type of mother (biological/non-biological) and the procreation mode (known/unknown genitor). Results show that the future biological mothers are older than their partner, pay less importance to their professional role and intend to ensure a greater number of parental tasks. Also, couples who use a known genitor face higher psychological distress than couples who choose an anonymous genitor. This study suggests that the choice of the partner who will bear the child in lesbian couples could be determined by factors predisposing them to adopt special parental roles and invest themselves differently in a child. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children conceived by gamete donation: Psychological adjustment and mother-child relationships at age 7.

An increasing number of babies are being born using donated sperm, where the child lacks a genetic link to the father, or donated eggs, where the child lacks a genetic link to the mother. This study examined the impact of telling children about their donor conception on mother-child relationships and children's psychological adjustment. Assessments of maternal positivity, maternal negativity, mother-child interaction, and child adjustment were administered to 32 egg donation, 36 donor insemination, and 54 natural conception families with a 7-year-old child. Although no differences were found for maternal negativity or child adjustment, mothers in nondisclosing gamete donation families showed less positive interaction than mothers in natural conception families, suggesting that families may benefit from openness about the child's genetic origins. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in the attitudes of couples whose children were conceived through artificial insemination by donor in 1980 and in 1996

OBJECTIVE: To compare the attitudes of couples whose children were conceived through artificial insemination by donor (AID) in 1980 and in 1996. DESIGN: Replication study. SETTING: Infertility clinic of the Utrecht university hospital. PATIENT(S): Couples who conceived a child through AID in 1980 (n = 134) or in 1996 (n = 110). INTERVENTION(S): Anonymous questionnaires. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Answers to questionnaires. RESULT(S): Couples who conceive a child through AID still strongly prefer (84%) absolute anonymity of the donor. In both 1980 and 1996, most couples (approximately 80%) decided not to inform their child about the nature of his or her conception. In 1996, couples who considered informing their child hesitated significantly less and showed significantly more openness toward others. In addition, more couples wanted unidentifiable data about the donor and considered it more important to use the same donor for a subsequent child. CONCLUSION(S): Between 1980 and 1996, the number of couples who conceived a child through AID and adhered to absolute anonymity of the donor and secrecy toward the child remained the same, whereas their openness toward others and desire for unidentifiable data about the donor increased.     

In vitro fertilization and the family: Quality of parenting, family functioning, and child psychosocial adjustment.

This study examined associations between homologous in vitro fertilization (IVF) and quality of parenting, family functioning, and emotional and behavioral adjustment of 3–7-year-old children. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Taiwan with 54 IVF mother–child pairs and 59 mother–child pairs with children conceived naturally. IVF mothers reported a greater level of protectiveness toward their children than control mothers. Teachers, blind to condition, rated IVF mothers as displaying greater warmth but not overprotective or intrusive parenting behaviors toward their children. Teachers scored children of IVF as having fewer behavioral problems than control children. In contrast, IVF mothers reported less satisfaction with aspects of family functioning. Family composition moderated parenting stress: IVF mothers with only 1 child perceived less parenting stress than did those in the control group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lesbians choosing motherhood: A comparative study of lesbian and heterosexual parents and their children.

Compared 15 lesbian couples and the 3- to 9-yr-old children born to them through donor insemination with 15 matched, heterosexual-parent families. A variety of assessment measures were used to evaluate the children's cognitive functioning and behavioral adjustment as well as the parents' relationship quality and parenting skills. Results revealed no significant differences between the 2 groups of children, who also compared favorably with the standardization samples for the instruments used. In addition, no significant differences were found between dyadic adjustment of lesbian and heterosexual couples. Only in the area of parenting did the 2 groups of couples differ; lesbian couples exhibited more parenting awareness skills than did heterosexual couples. The implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Families of the baby boom: Parents' division of labor and children's adjustment.

Assessed lesbian couples' division of labor, their satisfaction with division of labor and with their relationships, and their children's psychosocial adjustment. The 26 participating families were headed by lesbian couples, each of whom had at least 1 child between 4 and 9 yrs of age. Parents' relationship satisfaction was generally high but was unrelated to measures of parental division of labor or of children's adjustment. Although both parents reported sharing household tasks and decision making equally, biological mothers reported greater involvement in child care, and nonbiological mothers reported spending longer hours in paid employment. Parents were more satisfied and children were more well-adjusted when labor involved in child care was more evenly distributed between the parents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preferences for intracytoplasmic sperm injection versus donor insemination in severe male factor infertility: a preliminary report

With the advent of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), our programme noted a drop in the number of couples using donor insemination (DI) for severe male factor infertility. Over the first 8 months in which our infertility programme offered both treatments, 27 consecutive couples scheduled for ICSI and 15 consecutive couples scheduled for DI were evaluated Since all patients in our infertility programme beginning in-vitro fertilization (IVF) with planned ICSI or starting DI undergo a semi-structured psychological interview, the psychologist's clinical notes as well as the medical chart were reviewed and coded retrospectively to determine factors related to a couple's treatment choice. Couples who chose IVF-ICSI over DI had a higher occupational status and included husbands with higher educational levels. Their most common motivation was to have the husband's biological child (93% of couples in the ICSI group). The most common motivation for choosing DI (60% of DI couples) was that IVF was not financially affordable. Choice of treatment was not related to psychological adjustment, the husband having prior biological children, or his risk of passing on a genetic defect to offspring. These preliminary data raise the concern that, with the success of ICSI, DI may change in the USA from being an option dictated by semen quality to a second choice treatment utilized for economic reasons.     

Parenting Infants Conceived by Gamete Donation.

In recent years, concerns have been raised regarding the potentially negative consequences of gamete donation for parent-child relationships. Findings are presented of a study of families with an infant conceived by gamete donation. Fifty donor insemination families and 51 egg donation families were compared with 80 natural conception families on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of the psychological well-being of the parents, the quality of parent-child relationships, and infant temperament. The differences that were identified indicated more positive parent-child relationships among the gamete donation than the natural conception parents, accompanied by greater emotional involvement with the child. Comparisons were also carried out between the donor insemination and the egg donation parents on their experiences of gamete donation. In contrast to the findings of earlier investigations, the donor insemination and egg donation parents appeared to be more open toward disclosing the donor conception to the child. It was concluded that infants conceived by egg or sperm donation did not appear to be at risk for parenting difficulties. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do parents influence the sexual orientation of their children? Findings from a longitudinal study of lesbian families.

Findings are presented of a longitudinal study of the sexual orientation of adults who had been raised as children in lesbian families. Twenty-five children of lesbian mothers and a control group of 21 children of heterosexual single mothers were first seen at age 9.5 years on average, and again at age 23.5 years on average. Standardized interviews were used to obtain data on sexual orientation from the young adults in the follow-up study, and on family characteristics and children's gender role behavior from the mothers and their children in the initial study. Although those from lesbian families were more likely to explore same-sex relationships, particularly if their childhood family environment was characterized by an openness and acceptance of lesbian and gay relationships, the large majority of children who grew up in lesbian families identified as heterosexual (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social nesting: Changes in social network and support across the transition to parenthood in couples that conceived spontaneously or through assisted reproductive technologies.

Research showed that following the birth of a first child, parents increase contact with family members and diminish contact with friends, however, these changes may differ when conception is achieved through assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Based on the convoy model (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980) perspective of close relationships, we examined changes across the transition to parenthood in the social networks and support of men and women that conceived spontaneously or through ART. Thirty one women and 22 men (22 couples) that conceived through ART and 28 women and 24 men (24 couples) with a spontaneous conception provided data on social network and support from nuclear family, extended family, and friends twice: at 24-weeks pregnancy and 4-months postpartum. Results demonstrated that, regardless of method of conception, during the transition to parenthood new parents showed a strong nesting movement towards their nuclear family, perceiving increasing levels of nuclear family support across time. Extended family seemed to have only a secondary role on the social nesting movement and a withdrawal from friends was also observed. Considering the primary role nuclear family members seem to have on providing effective support to child-rearing, a greater emphasis on the importance of parents’ relationship with their own parents and siblings could be made and social and working policies that prevent the displacement of families geographically also should be considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fathers and mothers of school-age children with developmental disabilities: parental stress, family functioning, and social support

Thirty pairs of fathers and mothers who had school-age children with mental retardation and other disabilities were compared with each other and with 32 father and mother pairs of parents of children without disabilities. Responses to family scales indicated that fathers and mothers of children with developmental disabilities did not differ from each other nor from fathers and mothers of children without disabilities in parental stress, family social support, or family functioning. However, parents of children with disabilities experienced a disproportionately greater level of stress relating to their children than did those of children without disabilities. Fathers' and mothers' stress was associated with aspects of family functioning as perceived by themselves and their spouses.     

Preschool children's social status and their mothers' behavior and knowledge in the supervisory role.

We report two studies in which mothers of high school status (HSS) children were compared with mothers of low social status (LSS) children. The first examined mother's behavior in assisting her child to join in and play with a dyad of unknown children of the same age and sex. The second focused on the mothers' responses to hypothetical situations. Both studies assessed aspects of the mother in the supervisory role (i.e., where she directly manages or assists her child in peer relationships). On the basis of the notion that children might partly acquire social skills from their mother, we predicted that mother differences in the supervisory role would correspond with comparable social skill differences reported in the literature for HSS and LSS children. Many of the results were consistent with the prediction. We considered possible processes whereby children could acquire aspects of social skills from their parents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childspacing intervals and abortion among blacks and whites: a brief report

Although physical, psychological, and social problems for children born to women denied abortion have been identified, little attention has been paid to the role that close childspacing might play in contributing to those problems. Small childspacing intervals (less than two years) have been linked to numerous physical, psychological, and social problems for mother and child. Using secondary analysis, this study examines the characteristics of 596 mothers who sought abortions in 1987 by race and age. Nearly 25% of these mothers had at least one child under two years of age. Abortion patients with such young children were more likely to be Black and have low incomes than abortion patients with older children. More than half of the mothers studied had more than two children. The findings suggest that a substantial number of children born to women denied access to abortion would be closely spaced, with the resulting adverse health consequences falling more heavily on subpopulations of abortion patients already at higher risk for negative perinatal and neonatal outcomes.     

Early childhood family structure and mother–child interactions: Variation by race and ethnicity.

With data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort (n = 6,449), a nationally representative sample of births in 2001, we used hierarchical linear modeling to analyze differences in observed interactions between married, cohabiting, never-married, and divorced mothers and their children. In contrast to previous studies, we concentrated on early childhood, a developmentally critical period that has been understudied in the family structure literature, and relied on objective observational measures of mother–child interactions, which are unlikely to be biased by maternal perceptions of interactions with children. Nonmarital family structures were common in the lives of young children, as 32% lived outside of a married, biological parent home. Initial results indicated that married families were consistently associated with higher quality interactions. Moreover, though it was hypothesized that the presence of a biological father might be associated with higher quality interactions than single-parent households, this hypothesis was not confirmed. Additional models suggest that race and ethnicity moderated the effect of family structure, as non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White participants showed little significant variation between married and unmarried families. Among Hispanics, mothers living in cohabiting, divorced, or single families, when compared to married mothers, exhibited more negative and more intrusive behaviors; cohabiting mothers also scored lower on the measure of cognitive stimulation. Results suggest that marriage may not be uniformly associated with higher levels of mother–child interactions and that cohabitation, particularly for Hispanics, may be associated with adverse outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Embryo donation families: A follow-up in middle childhood.

Couples who conceive using donated embryos rear a child to whom they are genetically unrelated. It has been suggested that this may have negative consequences for parenting and child development. Findings are presented of the 2nd phase of an exploratory study of families with a child conceived through embryo donation. Seventeen embryo donation families with a 5- to 9-year-old child were compared with 24 adoptive families and 28 in vitro fertilization families. The quality of the mother's parenting and the child's social and emotional development were assessed using standardized interviews and questionnaires administered to mothers and teachers. Embryo donation children were not at increased risk of psychological problems during middle childhood, and the families were generally functioning well. However, higher emotional overinvolvement of embryo donation parents was found, along with more reluctance to disclose the method of family creation. These preliminary findings are discussed in terms of implications regarding the importance of genetic and gestational relationships between parents and children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children of battered women: The relation of child behavior to family violence and maternal stress.

Evaluated behavior problems and social competence in 198 4–16 yr old children from violent and nonviolent families (47 females and 55 males from transition homes for abused women and 53 females and 43 males from the community). 142 mothers rated their child's or children's behavior on the Child Behavior Checklist and completed measures of family violence (the Conflict Tactics scale) and maternal stress (the Life Experiences Survey and the General Health Questionnaire). Results indicate that children of battered women were rated significantly higher in behavior problems and were rated lower in social competence than were those in the comparison group. Among the Ss from violent families, 34% of the boys and 20% of the girls fell within the clinical range of behavior problems. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the maternal stress and family violence variables combined accounted for 19% of the variance in child behavior problems and accounted for 16% of the variance in social competence. In accordance with theoretical predictions, the impact on the child of witnessing family violence may be partially mediated by factors associated with maternal stress. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal psychological functioning, family processes, and child adjustment in rural, single-parent, African American families.

A family process model was tested, linking adequacy of family financial resources to academic and psychosocial adjustment among 156 African American 6- to 9-year-old children with single mothers who lived in the rural South. Seventy five percent of the sample lived in poverty. Lack of adequate financial resources was associated with more depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem among mothers. Self-esteem was linked with family routines and mother–child relationship quality. The paths from mother–child relationship quality and family routines to child academic and psychosocial adjustment were mediated by the development of child self-regulation. An alternative partially mediated model improved the fit of the data for families with boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)