Occurrence of trichothecene mycotoxins in Brazilian corn-based food products

The trichothecenes deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), and toxins T2 (T2) and HT2 (HT2) were searched for in 78 samples of corn-based products sold in the city of Sao Paulo/Brazil. Acetonitrile:water was used for extraction and the clean-up was accomplished with Mycosep columns. Trifluoroacylation was employed before quantification and confirmation by gas chromatograph with a selective mass detector (ion trap) in electron ionization mode. The detection limits varied with the several toxin/matrix combinations and ranged from 20 to 120 ng/g. The recoveries ranged from 71 to 155%. Only two samples were found contaminated: a sample of corn grits with 555 ng/g of T2 and 767 ng/g of HT2 and a sample of corn flour that exhibited traces of DON and NIV. DAS was not detected in any sample. The results indicate a low occurrence of trichothecene mycotoxins in corn-based products commercialized in the city of Sao Paulo in spite of high levels of T2 and HT2 found in one sample and show no immediate cause of concern. Nonetheless more extensive surveys conducted for several years are advisable in order to furnish a more complete picture of the incidence of these toxins in Brazilian corn products.     

Occurrence of histamine in Brazilian fresh and canned tuna

Histamine was investigated in fresh and canned tuna in Brazil. Histamine was detected in fresh tuna (3.4%) from the wholesale market, as well as fresh (46.7%) and canned tuna (46.3%) from the retail market. The mean levels were 0.19, 1.30 and 4.41 mg/kg, respectively. Grated canned tuna contained higher levels compared to solid; canned tuna in oil contained more than in water and salt; grated tuna with tomato sauce contained the highest levels. Every sample was in compliance with world legislation. The post catching and commercialization practices of tuna are adequate, warranting good quality tuna.     

Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Brazilian cocoa beans

In the present work studied the occurrence of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in dried beans from southern Bahia (Brazil) harvested in two periods of the year (early crop and harvest seasons) then fermented and dried under the sun. Nearly 92.5% of the cocoa samples presented OTA levels below the limits suggested by the European Community (2 μg/kg). The highest toxin content was found in fine and flavour cocoa beans harvested in the early crop. Ochratoxigenic species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium were isolated from the cocoa beans. Both harvesting time and production model influenced OTA content in cocoa. These results show that, according to the current world standards for Ochratoxin A levels, beans from southern Bahia give a good quality cocoa.     

Determination of benzoic and sorbic acids in Brazilian food

Different brands of soft drink, fruit juice, margarine, yoghurt and cheese available on the Brazilian market were analysed for benzoic and sorbic acids by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a photodiode array detector. The levels of benzoic and sorbic acids were, respectively, in the range of not detected to 804 mg/l and not detected to 1371 mg/kg, respectively. Only one sample presented a preservative level above that permitted by the legislation in force in Brazil. According to the results it can be predicted that the real utilisation of benzoates and sorbates is significantly lower than the maximum authorised levels.     

Free and hidden fumonisins in Brazilian raw maize samples

Fumonisins are secondary metabolites produced primarily by fungi strains that belong to the genera Fusarium and Alternaria, which have been shown to be highly prevalent in maize crops. Some authors have documented the presence of hidden forms of fumonisins occurring in raw maize. This purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of free and hidden fumonisins in raw maize. The concentrations of fumonisins in 72 naturally contaminated maize samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The performance parameters of the method to determine free fumonisins forms (FB₁ and FB₂) and hydrolyzed fumonisins forms (HFB₁ and HFB₂) were evaluated using the standards from the Commission of the European Communities (Commission, 2002). The analytical methods employed fell within the established guidelines. The amount of total fumonisins measured based on the hydrolyzed forms (HFB₁ + HFB₂) was 1.5–3.8 times greater than the amount of free fumonisins (FB₁ + FB₂). The concentration of hidden fumonisins was calculated by subtracting the levels of free fumonisins from the total fumonisin levels. The levels of hidden fumonisins were calculated to be 0.5–2.0 times greater than the level of free fumonisins. A strong positive correlation (R = 0.97) was observed between free fumonisins (FB₁ + FB₂) and. total fumonisins (HFB₁ + HFB₂). Based on this correlation, a predictive model was generated to estimate the total fumonisin level based on the measured/reported free fumonisin concentration. These results show that the risk of exposure to fumonisins is likely underestimated if only free fumonisins are considered. However, the predictive model could be a novel approach to estimating the total amount of fumonisins in maize samples without needing to perform expensive and time-consuming analytical methods.     

Occurrence of macrocyclic lactones in milk and yogurt from Brazilian market

Avermectins and milbemycins belong to a family of compounds called macrocyclic lactones (ML) and are highly used as antiparasitic agents in the treatment of cattle for control of gastrointestinal nematodes, ticks and myiasis. In Brazil, there are five substances (ivermectin, abamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin and moxidectin) registered for bovines. The use of these compounds may bring benefits to the cows but indiscriminate use might result in the presence of residues in milk and dairy products. In this context, the objective of the study was to validate an analytical method for determination of five ML in dairy products and verify the occurrence of these compounds in milk and yogurt available in the Brazilian market. The method involved QuEChERS sample preparation, derivatization and determination by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The methodology was validated using organic samples of milk and yogurt for the following parameters: linearity, precision, accuracy, repeatability and limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ). The method showed good linearity. Average recovery, performed at three different levels varied from 83% to 112% (RSDs < 14%). The method provides LOD ranging from 0.4 to 3.2 μg L⁻¹ for milk and 0.6 to 0.9 μg kg⁻¹ for yogurt. The LOQ was established according to the lower spike level (0.2–10 μg L⁻¹ for milk and 2.5 μg kg⁻¹ for yogurt). Repeatability and within-laboratory reproducibility were in satisfactory for both matrixes. In order to monitor milks and yogurts marketed in Campinas, SP, Brazil, 13 brands of UHT milk (135 samples), 8 brands of pasteurized milk (103 samples) and 13 brands of yogurt (104 samples) were acquired. A total of 342 samples were analyzed in duplicate for the presence of ivermectin, abamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin and moxidectin. Moxidectin was detected in one sample of pasteurized milk. No residue of the analyzed compounds was found in UHT milk or yogurt. Results indicate that the consumption of milk and yogurt does not represent a health risk for Brazilian consumers.     

Occurrence and factors associated with the presence of aflatoxin M1 in breast milk samples of nursing mothers in central Mexico

Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) is the main mycotoxin frequently found in milk and dairy products. Exposure of infants to AFM₁ is of great health public concern because of its toxic and carcinogenic properties. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence, levels and factors associated with the presence of aflatoxin M₁ in breast milk samples of nursing mothers in central Mexico. A total of 112 samples were collected and analyzed by a competitive-ELISA assay during January–August 2014. A Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire was used to determine weekly intake of food groups. Results showed that 89% of breast milk samples contained AFM₁ in a range of 3.01–34.24 ng/L. AFM₁ mean level was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in winter (12.78 ng/L) and spring (12.09 ng/L) than summer (7.91 ng/L). It was also detected that 7% of samples exceeded the European Community regulation (25 ng/L) for milk infant formula. The presence of aflatoxin M₁ was significantly associated (P < 0.05) to consumption of egg, cola drink and sunflower oil. The high occurrence and noticeable levels of AFM₁ detected, as well as the mean AFM₁ estimated daily intake (2.35 ng/kg b.w./day) suggested, for the first time, that breast-fed infants in the central region of Mexico, may be exposed to significant levels of this toxin through mother's breast milk.     

Occurrence and legislation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Morocco

Mycotoxins are natural food and feed contaminants, mainly produced by moulds of genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. The number of mycotoxins known to exert toxic effect on human and animal health is constantly increasing as well as the legislative provisions taken to control their presence in food and feed. Morocco, a North African country, surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, has a climate characterized by high humidity and high temperature which favor growth of moulds. This paper gives an overview about the contamination levels and the occurrence of some mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and Fusarium toxins) in cereals, bread, milk, spices, wine, olives, poultry feeds, dried fruits and nuts; the average of contaminated samples was often above 50%. A section on mycotoxin regulations by Moroccan authorities is discussed with a comparison with international and European limits. Recent data about the contamination of foods and feed from Morocco by mycotoxins are considered in this review. Finally, the paper gives a last part with conclusions and principal prospectives and recommendations that should be undertaken by authorities and scientists during monitoring of mycotoxins in food and feed produced and/or commercialized in Morocco.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in white cheese samples from Tehran, Iran

This study was undertaken to determine the occurrence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in 50 white cheese samples from 2 dairy factories in summer 2008 and winter 2009. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used for analysis of the samples. Aflatoxin M₁ was found in 60% of the cheese samples, ranging from 40.9 to 374 ng/kg. Toxin levels in 6% of the samples exceeded the Iranian national standard limit i.e. 200 ng/kg. Considering seasonal variability, mean concentration of AFM₁ in the samples collected in winter was significantly (P < 0.03) higher than those collected in summer. Therefore, high occurrence of AFM₁ in cheese samples could be a potential hazard for public health.     

Occurrence of Alternaria toxins in food products in The Netherlands

Alternaria toxins are mycotoxins that can contaminate cereals, oilseeds and various fruits and vegetables such as apples, tomatoes, citrus fruits and olives. The fungi can grow at low temperatures, thus causing spoilage even during transport and storage. Currently, there are relatively little occurrence data on Alternaria toxins in food products and in the Netherlands most data are limited to the presence of alternariol (AOH) and alternariol methyl ether (AME) in cereals. Tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN) and altenuene (ALT) have been recently identified by the Standing Committee on the food Chain and animal health as Alternaria toxins of concern. A survey (95 samples) was conducted in the Netherlands in 2013. The aim was to screen the levels of the five Alternaria toxins in wine (n = 5), fresh apples (n = 11), apple juices (n = 7), fresh tomatoes (n = 19), tomato sauces (n = 8), fresh citrus (n = 11), dried figs (n = 5), olives (n = 10), sunflower seeds (n = 5) and cereals (n = 14). Multi-mycotoxin methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were adapted for this purpose. Their performance characteristics were assessed and were as follows: recoveries and precision ranged from 85 to 112% and from 4 to 20%, respectively. LOQs were between 1.5 and 5.0 μg kg⁻¹. In the subsequent survey, AOH, AME, TeA, and TEN were detected in one or more food commodities, while ALT was not detected in any of the samples. TeA was found in 27% of the samples and at relatively high concentrations in sunflower seeds, tomato sauces and dried figs (up to 2345 μg kg⁻¹). Alternaria toxins occurred regularly in cereals, tomato sauces, figs, wine and sunflower seeds. Only incidental occurrence of the Alternaria toxins was observed in fresh apples, fresh citrus fruits, fresh tomatoes and olives.     

In-house method validation,estimating measurement uncertainty and the occurrence of fumonisin B1 in samples of Brazilian commercial rice

Fumonisin B₁ was investigated in samples of rice intended for human consumption, including polished parboiled rice, whole grain rice and whole grain parboiled rice. Until the present, no studies on the occurrence of fumonisin B₁ have been performed on these types of rice that are commercially available in the south-eastern region of Brazil. A careful intralaboratory validation was carried out to demonstrate the fitness-of-purpose of the applied method for determining fumonisin B₁ in the three studied rice types. The performance criteria – selectivity, reliable limits of detection (50 μg kg⁻¹) and quantification (100 μg kg⁻¹), linearity (range 100–2500 μg kg⁻¹), precision (RSD values ≤ 17.0%) and recovery (71.7–112.0 %) were evaluated, and the expanded measurement uncertainty was estimated by using the data obtained from precision and recovery experiments. Matrix-matched calibration standards were employed to quantify the mycotoxin levels in the rice samples, in which the residual normality, homoscedasticity and independence were confirmed. In addition, the measurement uncertainty values are consistent with the maximum acceptable uncertainty established by European Union regulation for analytical methods for controlling mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Among the thirty-one commercial samples of rice analysed in the present study, five samples presented detectable levels of the mycotoxin, and these levels ranged from 64.8 to 163.0 μg kg⁻¹.     

The role of theoretical food safety training on Brazilian food handlers' knowledge,attitude and practice

The objectives of this study were 1. to identify the relationship of theoretical training with knowledge, attitudes, self-reported practices and observed practices and 2. to identify variables that influence observed practices. This study was cross-sectional and involved 183 randomly selected food handlers from different food businesses in Santos City, Brazil, as follows: street food kiosks, beach kiosks, restaurants, hospitals and school meal services. To evaluate knowledge, attitudes and self-reported practices, a structured questionnaire was used. Observed practices were evaluated using a checklist. A researcher observed and followed each food handler throughout the process of food handling/preparation during a workday. The majority of participants (68.3%) had participated in at least one food safety training session. The average percentage of correct answers on the knowledge questionnaire was 64%. Food handlers who had undergone training presented higher knowledge scores but did not differ from those who had not regarding attitudes, self-reported practices and observed practices. A regression model was used to study the variables associated with observed practices (p < 0.001). The variables related to observed practices were the knowledge score (β = 0.27, p < 0.01), experience (in years as a food handler) (β = 0.19, p = 0.01), the relationship between the number of meals and the number of food handlers (β = −0.19, p = 0.01), buildings and facilities adequacy (β = 0.20, p = 0.01) and the presence of a nutritionist (β = 0.42, p < 0.001). This study showed that training based on theoretical aspects is not related to the attitudes, self-reported practices and observed practices of Brazilian food handlers from different food services. However, training seems to be an effective tool for improving knowledge. The current wording of Brazilian legislation motivates food handlers to undergo training only for certification. Food safety laws should not only require certification but also enable the establishment of policies to monitor and ensure the adequacy of food services.     

Occurrence of toxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in Ethiopian coffee for local consumption

Information on the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in local Ethiopian coffee is scarce. Therefore, the objective of this study was to type the fungal and mycotoxin contamination levels in Ethiopian coffee consumed by the local community. Coffee samples were collected from six major coffee growing districts in Jimma zone of Oromiya regional state in Ethiopia. Total fungal incidence mounted up to 87% and Aspergillus (79%), Fusarium (8%) and Penicillium (5%) were the predominant toxigenic genera. OTA producing species A. westerdijkiae, Aspergillus ochraceus, and Aspergillus steynii were identified for the first time in Ethiopia and were shown to be the predominant species while aflatoxin (AF) producing Aspergillus species were scarce. Using an in vitro approach, the OTA production potential was assessed under standardized conditions. Based on this experiment, it was concluded that Aspergillus westerdijkiae isolates were clearly the most potent producers of OTA. The median OTA level in the locally sold Ethiopian coffee was 1.53 μg/kg. Notwithstanding this low median value, significant differences in fungal and toxin incidences were observed between the different coffee processing types, coffee sample types, and storage characteristics.     

Estimation of the daily intake of hexachlorobenzene from food consumption by the population of Catalonia, Spain: Health risks

In 2000 and 2006, we determined the dietary intake of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) by the population of Catalonia, Spain. In order to establish the temporal trend in the levels of HCB in foodstuffs, as well as in the dietary exposure to that environmental pollutant, the concentrations were again analyzed by HRGC/HRMS in 65 composite food samples widely consumed by the Catalan population. Food samples were randomly purchased in November-December 2008 in local markets, small stores, supermarkets, and large grocery stores from 12 representative cities from Catalonia. The daily intake of HCB associated with this consumption was estimated for four age groups of the population of Catalonia: children, teenagers, adults and seniors, which were in turn divided according to sex. The highest mean HCB levels in food were detected in oils and fats (0.297 ng/g fw), dairy products (0.225 ng/g fw), and fish and seafood (0.170 ng/g fw). In the 2000 and 2006 surveys, total dietary intakes of HCB were 166.2 and 71.6 ng/day, respectively (or 2.4 and 1.0 ng/kg of body weight per day). In the current study, it was 37.7 ng/day (or 0.54 ng/kg of body weight per day), which means considerable decreases with respect to the previous intakes. According to recommendations of international regulatory organisms, the current dietary intake of HCB should not mean any significant health risk (carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic) for any of the age/gender groups of population here assessed.     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cereal-derived food products commonly consumed in Turkey

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that can be found in several food commodities including cereals, wine, coffee, cacao, spices or dried fruits, resulting in chronic human exposure. The aim of our study was to investigate the presence of OTA in widely consumed cereal-derived products commercialized in Turkey. A total of 142 samples were collected from different supermarkets and traditional bazaars in Istanbul during 2008-2010 years. The analytical methods used in our study involved the liquid/liquid extraction of OTA, immunoaffinity clean-up and high performance liquid chromatography determination with fluorescence detection. The frequencies of OTA contamination were 21.62%, 19.05% and 55.95% and the mean concentrations of positive samples were 0.32 μg/kg, 0.14 μg/kg, 0.41 μg/kg for breakfast cereals, cereal-based baby foods and tarhana samples, respectively. Our findings show that contamination levels of OTA in all cereal-derived products were lower than the permitted level by European Commission Regulation.     

Food safety knowledge and training participation are associated with lower stress and anxiety levels of Brazilian food handlers

The objectives of this study were: 1) identify the state anxiety, trait anxiety levels and perceived stress levels of food handlers and; 2) Verify the association of these scores with food safety variables like: food safety knowledge, attitudes, practices and with job characteristics. This study involved 183 randomly selected food handlers from different food businesses in Santos city, Brazil, as follows: street food kiosks, beach kiosks, restaurants, hospitals and school meal services. To evaluate knowledge, attitudes and self-reported practices, a structured questionnaire was used. Observed practices were evaluated using a checklist. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory – STAI was applied to assess the levels of state and trait anxiety with a score range from 10 to 80. To evaluate stress the Perceived Stress Questionnaire – PSQ was used with a score range from zero to one. Food handlers presented 39.22; 10.1 (mean; standard deviation) of state anxiety score, 39.58; 9.6 of trait anxiety score and a perceived stress score of 0.36; 0.09. Observed practices presented a weak negative correlation with state anxiety (r = −0.26; p = 0.014) but not with trait anxiety (r = −0.18; p = 0.09) and stress (r = 0.03; p = 0.78). Using generalized linear models were observed that a higher stress level, trait anxiety and state anxiety were found in food handlers who do not participated in food safety training and with lower knowledge scores of food safety. These findings show that training can not only improve knowledge but possibly empower food handlers, increase their self-efficacy and reduce anxiety and stress levels.     

Awareness of Listeria and high-risk food consumption behavior among pregnant women in Louisiana

Listeria monocytogenes is transmitted predominantly through contaminated food. About one in seven (14%) cases of Listeria infection occurs during pregnancy. In this study, we assessed the awareness of foodborne pathogens including Listeria and high-risk food consumption, among 218 pregnant women in southeastern Louisiana parishes in and around an urbanized area. The results showed the relationship between awareness of Listeria and selected demographic variables, such as age, race, and education level. The majority (71.1%) of pregnant women reported the consumption of high-risk foods during pregnancy. One person reportedly consumed six of the seven high-risk foods. Gaps existed between awareness of Listeria and high-risk food consumption behaviors, although as pregnant women’s awareness of Listeria increased, their high-risk food consumption behaviors decreased. Targeted continuing education for pregnant women in Louisiana should address the gaps identified in this study.     

3-MCPD and glycidyl esters in infant formulas from the Brazilian market: Occurrence and risk assessment

High concentrations of esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPDE) and glycidol (GE) have been reported in infant formulas due to the use of refined vegetable oils that may contain high levels of these contaminants. Commercial infant formulas available on the Brazilian market (n = 40) were analyzed for the first time for 3-MCPDE and GE using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. For 3-MCPDE, the limits of detection (LOD) and quantitation (LOQ) were 0.08 mg/kg and 0.16 mg/kg, respectively. For GE, the LOD and LOQ were 0.10 mg/kg and 0.20 mg/kg, respectively. Mean recoveries varied from 93 to 108% for 3-MCPDE and from 82 to 97% for GE. Levels of 3-MCPDE in the products ranged from not detected to 0.60 mg/kg whereas concentrations of GE ranged from not detected to 0.75 mg/kg. A theoretical preliminary exposure assessment showed that 3-MCPDE and GE intakes were up to 5.81 and 10.46 μg/kg body weight/day, respectively, in a worst case scenario (95th percentile). According to the results obtained in this study, the levels of 3-MCPDE and GE in infant formulas marketed in Brazil may pose a potential risk to the health of the consumers of these products and need to be constantly monitored.     

Occurrence of Listeria spp. in Brazilian fresh sausage and control of Listeria monocytogenes using bacteriophage P100

Since the 1980s, an increase in outbreaks of human listeriosis linked to contaminated food has been a concern of health authorities. Intensively manipulated foods, such as Brazilian fresh sausage, are frequently responsible for food-borne diseases. In this work the occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes and the efficacy of bacteriophage P100 (LISTEX?) to control the microorganism was evaluated in Brazilian fresh sausage. Eighty samples were analyzed, 40 each of swine and chicken Brazilian fresh sausage. Listeria spp. were isolated from 12 samples (15%), of which three (3.75%) were positive for L. monocytogenes. L. monocytogenes strains isolated belonged to serotype 1/2a. L. monocytogenes 1/2a was inoculated in Brazilian fresh sausage (2.1 × 10⁴ cfu/g) with the bacteriophage added thereafter (3.0 × 10⁷ pfu/g). Samples were analysed immediately (day zero) and then stored at 4 °C for 10 days. The bacteriophage P100 reduced L. monocytogenes counts by 2.5 log units at both 0 and 10 days compared to controls without bacteriophage. In spite of this, the populations of L. moncytogenes increased over the 10 day storage. Our data demonstrate that in one of the samples the use of the bacteriophage dropped the bacteria count below the level of direct detection. This study demonstrates a new alternative for pathogen control in the food industry, especially in the processes used to produce Brazilian fresh sausage.     

Occurrence of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus in various food products commercialized in Botucatu,SP, Brazil and detection of toxins from food and isolated strains

The aim of this work was to assess the microbiological quality of commercialized desserts, sandwiches and finger food in Botucatu, SP, for human consumption. A total of 172 food samples were analyzed for fecal coliforms and coagulase-positive Staphylococcus and 69 (40.1%) were in disagreement with the standards established by Decree No. 12 (Brazilian Food Sanitation Standard, 2001). Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus was isolated from 26 (15.1%) samples. Toxins were not isolated directly from foods but 27 (54%) coagulase-positive Staphylococcus strains were enterotoxigenic, and toxin type C was the most frequently detected. These results suggest that these products may act as an important vehicle of transmission for well-established pathogens.