On the wear and failure of high speed roller bearings

A laboratory bearing test rig was constructed to study wear and failure mechanisms in high speed roller bearings under different conditions of loading and lubrication. The design of the rig permitted three bearings to be tested simultaneously. A test run of 720 h duration was performed during which wear of the bearings was monitored using ferrography and atomic absorption oil analysis. Wear debris particles collected from the bearings by ferrography were studied with scanning electron microscopy using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. The results of ferrography were correlated with the metallographic observations made on the worn bearings.It was found that for lightly loaded high speed roller bearings rolling contact fatigue including surface pitting is not a significant wear or failure mechanism. However, misalignment due to shaft deflection above a critical point cannot be tolerated. Wear of high speed engine bearings can successfully be monitored by ferrography but, as the wear condition accelerates, frequent oil sample collections are beneficial.     

A model and the methodology for determining wear particle generation rate and filter efficiency in a diesel engine using ferrography

A mathematical model was developed that describes the wear particle concentration as a function of time in a diesel engine. This model contains engine and lubrication system parameters that determine the concentration of wear particles in the engine sump. These variables are the oil system volume, oil flow rate, particle generation rate, filtering efficiency and the initial particle concentration. The model was employed to study the wear particle concentrations in the sump and the mass of particles in the filter for the Cummins VT-903 diesel engine. In addition, the model was used to develop a testing methodology for determining wear particle generation rates and filter efficiencies from used oil analysis. This testing methodology uses ferrography together with computer programs to yield accurate statistical information on the data as curve fitted to the model. The test set-up incorporated a remote-controlled sampling system that enabled the accurate and periodic taking of oil samples over an engine test approximately 5 h in duration.

Results of this research indicate that equilibrium wear particle concentrations increase with an increase in engine speed and load. The wear particle generation rate and filter efficiency as determined by the test methodology were found to decrease with an increase in engine speed and load. After oil and filter changes, the wear particle generation rate and filter efficiency continually increased with cumulative engine time up to approximately 11 h. The test methods used to obtain the results above were found to be repeatable to within ±15% and could conceivably be employed to determine wear parameters on other diesel engines as well as the effects that other engine variables such as lubricants, oil temperature, coolant temperature and engine components have on the wear parameters.     

The interpretation of data from wear debris analysis, with particular reference to ferrography

A theoretical model of an oil lubrication system is presented. Wear particle generation and loss and lubricant usage are taken into account. The model can be used to reveal changes in the instantaneous wear rate from measurements of the wear debris concentration. The example of a diesel engine run-in is given. The model is also used to highlight the differences between oil analysis techniques which result from their differing sensitivities to particle sizes.     

莱康明航空活塞发动机台架试车滑油压力低原因浅析

滑油压力是活塞发动机台架试车时最重要的监控参数之一,低滑油压力会导致发动机各摩擦副表面润滑不良,从而使发动机的各部件过早磨损,严重时会使发动机彻底失效.文中以莱康明IO-360-L2A航空活塞发动机为例,分析了导致滑油压力低的原因.     

Comparison of oil analysis and filter content analysis: A case study

Oil filters contain useful information on wear that has occurred in the oil-wetted mechanical system. However, filter analysis for wear detection is seldom performed, because the method is fairly cumbersome. On the other hand spectral oil-analysis can be economically done in highly automated laboratories and is therefore widely accepted. This paper describes the case involving a small passenger car diesel engine, where the results of the filter analysis were compared with the results of simultaneously performed oil analysis using X-ray fluorescence. Oil and filter samples were analysed after each 10,000 km, when oil and filter changes took place, over the life of the engine to 165,000 km. The results, as derived from the filter samples, showed a roughly shaped bath-tub curve development of the wear rate before the final stage of serious deterioration. However, the oil analysis did not confirm this trend. It is believed that the different in characteristics between a filter sample and an oil sample, and the effects of particle size and of oil filtration on the oil sample, may cause this discrepancy. If the latter is the case, care has to be taken in oil sampling for wear analysis, particularly in systems with fine full-flow filtration. Suggestions are made at the end of the paper for the design of dedicated diagnostic filters for wear debris detection.     

航空发动机滑油磨粒在线监测

航空发动机轴承部件磨损是导致发动机失效,引起飞机重大事故的主要因素之一。分析了航空发动机突发性剧烈磨损的疲劳磨损失效机理,陈述了磨粒尺寸和数量表征磨损程度的关系,系统介绍了各种航空发动机滑油磨粒在线监测技术,讨论了各技术方法的原理、技术特点、典型参数、典型应用、最新研究成果及技术适应性。滑油磨粒在线监测技术,能有效发现航空发动机突发性剧烈磨损,及时预警失效,避免出现重大事故,具有重大工程应用价值。     

Effects of refined palm oil (RPO) fuel on wear of diesel engine components

In this particular research work, the effects of refined palm oil (RPO), as alternative fuel, on wear of diesel engine components are assessed. Fleet testing is carried for the qualifying candidates diesel fuel replacement, i.e. 100% RPO fuel or 50% RPO and 50% conventional diesel fuel mixture. The base line of the fleet testing is using pure conventional petroleum diesel fuel as an energy source in one of the tested vehicles in the fleet. Analysis of used engine lubrication oil, taken when the oil was changed on the vehicles, was compared to the analysis of used oil samples pulled from 100% diesel fuel engines. The finding suggested that the pure RPO and RPO blended fueled engines were wearing at a normal rate.     

Effect of palm oil methyl ester and its emulsions on lubricant degradation and engine component wear

This paper presents the results of experimental work carried out to evaluate the effect of palm oil methyl ester also known as palm oil diesel (POD) and its emulsions, as alternative fuels, on unmodified indirect‐injection diesel engine wear and lubricant oil deterioration compared with ordinary diesel (OD). A constant 2500 rpm engine setting at half throttle was maintained throughout the wear debris and lubricant oil analysis period for 20 h for each fuel system. Samples of lubricant oil were collected through a one‐way valve connected to the crankcase sump at intervals of 4 h. The first sample was collected immediately after the engine had warmed up. The same lubricating oil, a conventional SAE 30, was used for all experiments. A multi‐element oil analyser was used to measure metal wear debris and lubricating oil additive depletion for the used lubricating oil. An ISL automatic houillon viscometer (ASTM D 445) and potentiometric titration (ASTM D 2896) were used to measure the viscosity and total base number, respectively. The lubricant oil analysis results for POD, OD, and their emulsions containing 10% water by volume were compared. Very promising results were obtained. The accumulation of metal wear debris in crankcase oil samples was lower with POD and its emulsion compared with the OD fuel. The addition of 10% water (by volume) to POD showed a promising tendency for wear resistance.     

Surface roughness evolutions in sliding wear process

Wear debris analysis is a technique for machine condition monitoring and fault diagnosis. One key issue that affects the application of wear debris analysis for machine condition monitoring is whether the morphology of the wear particles accurately depicts their original states and the surface morphology of the components from which the particles separate. This study aimed to investigate the evolution of the surface morphology of wear debris in relation to change in the surface morphology of wear components in sliding wear process. Sliding wear tests were conducted using a ball-on-disc tester under proper lubrication and improper lubrication conditions. The study of the particle size distribution and the surfaces of both the wear debris and the tested samples in relation to the wear condition and the wear rates of the wear components were carried out in this study. The evolutions of the surface topographies of both the wear debris and the wear components as wear progressed were investigated. This study has provided insight to the progress of material degradation through the study of wear debris. The results of this research have clearly demonstrated that: (a) there is a good correlation of the surface morphology of wear debris and that of the wear components, and (b) the surface morphology of wear debris contains valuable information for machine condition monitoring.     

Engine Wear Monitoring with OLVF

In this article, an on-line visual ferrograph (OLVF) was used to monitor the wear condition of a vehicle engine during a bench test. A quantitative index of particle coverage area (IPCA) and wear debris ferro-image were obtained via OLVF to characterize wear degrees. On-line ferrograph analysis indicated some problems with the engine from about the 17th hour. A linear threshold value method to identify running condition of engines with the OLVF data was proposed. The OLVF data were in a fault zone after running for 25 h, when a base bolt broke and the engine stopped working during the test. The engine was disassembled and inspected after the test. Several wear scars were found on the cylinder walls as well as on the bearing surfaces. The oil was added at the 26th and 55th hours, which was also reflected by the variation of IPCA. Moreover, several off-line analyses were carried out in parallel. Off-line ferrograph data did not give any information about the abnormality and only showed stable wear debris content. Spectrometric oil analysis showed that there was no significant change in contents of metal elements.     

Condition monitoring of aircraft by quantitative filter debris analysis

Various condition monitoring techniques are used collectively to monitor the health of aircraft engines and transmission, a concept known as Integrated Health Monitoring (IHM). A well-established quantitative technique is Aircraft Oil Analysis (AOA), in which spectroscopic techniques such as Rotating Disk Electrode Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (RDE-AES) are employed to analyse periodic oil samples for wear debris. Usually, no sample preparation is undertaken, as the oil sample containing both dissolved and suspended metallic wear debris is analysed directly. AOA works well for oil-lubricated systems with relatively coarse filtration that allow circulation of the debris and its subsequent abrasive contact with moving components. To avoid this secondary wear, finer filtration is employed on both new and older aircraft. Less wear debris, and thus information, is available in the oil. A technique that quantitatively analyses the wear debris caught on the filter has been developed and is termed Quantitative Filter Debris Analysis (QFDA). Actual oil filters from CF88 Challenger ALF 502L-2C and Hornet F404 engines were obtained in sequence, when possible, prepared by the developed procedure, and analysed with AOA instrumentation. With sufficient results, both normal and abnormal levels of wear rates emerged, as has been recorded and used for AOA. Moreover, trending of the data for sequential samples has demonstrated the capability of GFDA for condition monitoring.     

润滑和载荷状态对聚甲醛齿轮服役性能的影响

基于齿轮耐久性能试验台开展了一系列干接触/油润滑下POM(聚甲醛)-POM齿轮副承载能力试验,并测量了服役过程中的轮齿温度、磨损量、齿廓精度和齿面形貌。试验发现,POM齿轮失效形式与载荷和润滑方式有关。通过对齿面微观形貌和磨屑表征,确认干接触下POM齿轮主要磨损模式为黏着磨损与磨粒磨损,而油润滑下POM齿轮失效形式为接触疲劳失效。由于润滑油减少了齿面摩擦,降低了运行温度,延缓了齿面劣化程度,因此POM齿轮在油润滑下的承载能力明显提高。     

柴油发动机故障诊断技术研究与应用

应用振动法对柴油机气缸体上的振动信号进行分析,得出总振动量级主随活塞与气缸套磨损间隙的增大而适级放大.根据气缸体振动加速度响应功率谱图和柴油发动机总振动量级,可以确定活塞与气缸壁的间隙大小.应用油样铁谱分析技术,可以确定发动机的润滑状况及摩擦副的磨损程度和部位,并通过实例证明了其在柴油发动机故障诊断中的有效性.应用直读式原子发射光谱仪对柴油发动机润滑油油样进行检测,监控柴油发动机曲轴滑动轴承磨损状况,对保障发动机可靠运行起到很好的作用.     

Analytical approach to wear rate determination for internal combustion engine condition monitoring based on oil analysis

Wear has important, negative effects on the functioning of engine parts. Additionally, this situation is very difficult to evaluate accurately in oil analysis for engine condition monitoring. Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM), lubricant suppliers and oil analysis laboratories provide specific guidelines for wear metal concentrations. These limits provide good general guidelines for interpreting oil analysis data, but do not take into account common factors that influence the concentration of wear debris and contaminants in an oil sample. These factors involve oil consumption, fresh oil additions, etc., and particular features such as engine age, type of service, environmental conditions, etc.In this paper, an analytical approach to enable a more accurate wear determination from engine oil samples is developed. The above factors are taken into account and an improved maintenance program for internal combustion engines based on oil analysis is developed.     

基于润滑机理的智能液压元件本体性能预测方法

以液压泵为例,以其最为薄弱的环节--滑靴副为研究对象,并以滑靴磨损作为性能退化原因,结合滑靴磨损数学描述方程、泄漏流量公式和柱塞腔压力瞬时变化模型,建立了滑靴磨损过程的油膜润滑特性方程组;揭示了液压泵性能失稳失效机理,计算了失稳和失效临界点;对液压泵性能退化状态进行区域划分,分析液压泵不同状态下滑靴磨损量与油膜润滑特性参数及性能退化参数的变化规律,建立了性能预测模型;通过仿真分析验证理论模型的正确性,通过液压泵性能测试试验验证预测模型的有效性和预测精度,结果表明,所构建的模型能够精确预测液压泵性能。     

基于铁谱分析的颗粒分类识别方法与应用

铁谱颗粒分析是机器磨损状态监测与维修决策制定最有效的油液分析方法。通过近年来开展工业企业机器油液监测积累的大量铁谱磨粒图像,进行基于不同的颗粒特征的分类识别探究,并基于不同颗粒形成机制与原因提出切合工业现场的润滑管理维保策略。应用实践表明,铁谱分析方法在机器磨损状态监测、润滑磨损诊断机制判别以及企业润滑管理提升活动中仍发挥着积极作用。     

The Effects of Magnetic Treatment on the Tribological Behavior of AISI 1045 Steel under Lubricated Conditions

The mechanical and tribological properties of pulse-magnetized and untreated AISI 1045 steel were studied comparatively. The microhardness and microstructures of treated and untreated steel samples were analyzed to evaluate magnetic treatment effects on the mechanical properties. Dislocation densities were calculated from X-ray diffraction data according to the Williamson-Hall method. Tribological tests were conducted using a ball-on-disk reciprocating friction and wear tester. Scanning electron and energy-dispersive microscopies were used to analyze the morphologies and elements of worn surfaces. Dislocation densities of AISI 1045 steel were found to increase by 16.5% after magnetic treatment. Treated steel performed better under polyalphaolefin (PAO) base oil lubrication with each of five additives, especially when oleic acid was 0.2 and 1.5% (by mass), and the wear scar width and friction coefficient of treated samples were 46.9 and 16.4% lower than those of the untreated samples, respectively. Morphological analyses indicated that micromagnetic fields generated during friction tests not only promoted oxidation of the worn surface and debris but also produced thinner tribofilms that included chemical and adsorbed films.     

平底直动从动件凸轮机构磨损失效分析及磨损量计算

凸轮轴和挺杆体是发动机的重要零件,它们的状况直接影响着发动机能否正常工作.文中研究了平底直动从动件凸轮机构运动模型和受力情况,并对其磨损失效成因、磨损形式、磨损规律进行了分析;剖析了相对滑动、润滑条件和接触应力对其工作环境的影响机理,建立了磨损计算模型;并提出从凸轮挺杆材料选配、润滑油、运动参数方面降低凸轮机构磨损的相应措施;提高了凸轮机构的工作可靠性,延长了工作寿命.     

Friction and wear reductions in fluorinated plain and fully formulated oils through enhanced heating time using moderate loading under boundary lubrication conditions

The use of fluorinated mix catalyst (titanium fluoride: TiF₃ + iron fluoride: FeF₃) with polytetrafluoroethylene: PTFE in engine oil is increasingly a strategy to improve fuel economy and component durability to simultaneously provide low friction and excellent wear protection. The influence of these additives shows promising results during load bearing capacity testing and long‐term durability experiments. This paper addresses the enhancement of friction and wear performances of 0.1% and 0.05% phosphorus plain zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDDP) oil and fully formulated engine oil when heated to 100°C for specific time under thermal and tribological conditions for moderate pressure loading (1.9 GPa Hertzian pressure or 180 N) which simulate the cold start of a car under 700 rpm rotational speed or the valve trains loading where most of the ZDDP are applied. Tests were performed in a ball on cylinder tribometer under boundary lubrication conditions. Surface analyses were carried out using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results showed that the anti‐wear additives (2 wt. % PTFE + 0.5 wt. % FeF₃ + .5 wt. % TiF₃) provided excellent wear protection to 0.1% phosphorus plain and fully formulated oil when cylinder is immersed in the desired lubricant and heated for a predetermined time but performed poorly in 0.05% phosphorus fully formulated oil under the same conditions. The transform of anti‐wear coated material to the worn surfaces, which was a function of the anti‐wear performance of additives, was shown to have an influence on friction performance. The wear reducing effect, which was observed in fluorinated additives tribological tests, indicated a positive contribution and good tribofilm formations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.