ADS熔盐散裂靶中子学性能研究

与传统加速器驱动次临界系统（ADS）采用金属靶作为散裂中子靶的设计不同,加速器驱动次临界熔盐堆（AD-MSRs）采用靶堆一体的设计,直接使用燃料熔盐作为散裂中子靶。由于熔盐靶的中子学性能直接影响AD MSRs的能量放大系数、核废物的嬗变和核燃料增殖的效率,所以本研究基于MCNPX程序,详细计算了高能质子轰击氟盐和氯盐两种熔盐靶产生的散裂中子产额、散裂中子能谱、能量沉积分布以及散裂产物等中子学性能,并与液态Pb和铅铋共熔体（LBE）两种液态金属靶进行了对比。计算结果表明,熔盐靶在散裂中子产额上与液态金属靶有一定的差距,但熔盐靶内能量沉积分布的梯度较小,更有利于靶区的热量导出。与液态Pb和LBE靶相比,熔盐靶的散裂产物中包含更多的气体以及高质量数的α发射体核素。     

Investigation of Lead Target Nuclei Used on Accelerator-Driven Systems for Tritium Production

High-current proton accelerators are being researched at Los Alamos National Laboratory and other laboratories for accelerator production of tritium, transmuting long-lived radioactive waste into shorter-lived products, converting excess plutonium, and producing energy. These technologies make use of spallation neutrons produced in (p,xn) and (n,xn) nuclear reactions on high-Z targets. Through (p,xn) and (n,xn) nuclear reactions, neutrons are produced and are moderated by heavy water. These moderated neutrons are subsequently captured on ³He to produce tritium via the (n,p) reaction. Tritium self-sufficiency must be maintained for a commercial fusion power plant. Rubbia succeeded in a proposal of a full scale demonstration plant of the Energy Amplifier. This plant is to be known the accelerator-driven system (ADS). The ADS can be used for production of neutrons in spallation neutron source and they can act as an intense neutron source in accelerator-driven subcritical reactors, capable of incinerating nuclear waste and of producing energy. Thorium and Uranium are nuclear fuels and Lead, Bismuth, Tungsten are the target nuclei in these reactor systems. The spallation targets can be Pb, Bi, W, etc. isotopes and these target material can be liquid or solid. Naturally Lead includes the ²⁰⁴Pb (%1.42), ²⁰⁶Pb (%24.1), ²⁰⁷Pb (%22.1) and ²⁰⁸Pb (%52.3) isotopes. The design of ADS systems and also a fusion-fission hybrid reactor systems require the knowledge of a wide range of better data. In this study, by using Hartree–Fock method with an effective nucleon-nucleon Skyrme interactions rms nuclear charge radii, rms nuclear mass radii, rms nuclear proton, neutron radii and neutron skin thickness were calculated for the ^{204, 206, 208}Pb isotopes. The calculated results have been compared with those of the compiled experimental and theoretical values of other studies.     

Theoretical cross sections of Bi,Th, U and U on deuteron-induced reactions

There are many application fields for fast neutrons. The main application fields of the fast neutrons are accelerator-driven sub-critical systems (ADS) and fusion–fission (hybrid) reactor systems for fission energy production. Thorium (Th) and uranium (U) are nuclear fuels in fusion–fission (hybrid) reactor systems and bismuth (Bi) is also the target nucleus in the ADS reactor systems. In this study, neutron production cross sections produced by (d, xn) reactions for spallation targets such as ²⁰⁹Bi, ²³²Th, ²³⁵U and ²³⁸U have been investigated. New evaluated hybrid model and geometry dependent hybrid model have been used to calculate the pre-equilibrium neutron production cross sections. For the reaction equilibrium component, Weisskopf–Ewing model calculations have been preferred. The obtained results have been discussed and compared with the available experimental data and found in agreement with each other.     

Investigation of the properties of the nuclei used on the new generation reactor technology systems

The main application fields of the fast neutrons are accelerator-driven subcritical systems (ADS) and fusion–fission (hybrid) reactor systems for fission energy production. Thorium (Th) and uranium (U) are nuclear fuels in these reactor systems. Lead (Pb), bismuth (Bi) and tungsten (W) are the target nuclei in the ADS reactor systems. The technical design of ADS and hybrid reactor systems require much effort and data. The Hartree–Fock (H–F) method with an effective interaction with Skyrme forces is widely used for studying the properties of nuclei such as binding energy, root mean square (RMS) charge radii, mass radii, neutron density, proton density, electromagnetic multipole moments, etc. In this study, by using H–F method with interaction Skyrme RMS charge radii, RMS mass radii, neutron density and proton density were calculated for the ²³²Th, ²³⁸U, ²⁰⁷Pb, ²⁰⁹Bi and ¹⁸⁴W isotopes. The calculation results of charge radii were compared with experimental data. Obtained RMS mass radii, neutron density and proton density results were discussed for ADS and hybrid reactor systems.     

Feasibility of uranium spallation target in accelerator-driven system

A feasibility study on natural uranium spallation target in accelerator-driven system (ADS) for minor actinide (MA) transmutation was performed. As a result of comparative study of uranium and lead-bismuth (PbBi) targets in the bare case without blanket surrounding, it was found that uranium target had better neutron generation performance, but limited by the geometrical size due to high neutron absorption in ²³⁸U. In ADS for MA transmutation, uranium used as target instead of PbBi also absorbs neutrons passing the target area.More realistic concept of pin type uranium spallation target cooled by liquid PbBi was considered aiming at enhancing spallation target performance in terms of neutron generation efficiency and operation temperature. The uranium pin target design had nothing better effects on neutron balance of such system than a conventional PbBi target in ADS and it was concluded that uranium target was not suitable for the full-scale ADS.     

Numerical design of a 20 MW lead–bismuth spallation target for an accelerator-driven system

A spallation target system is a key component to be developed for an accelerator-driven system (ADS). It is known that a 15–25 MW spallation target is required for the practical size of an ADS. Although there have been some design studies for small power spallation targets, that is, less than 10 MW, designs of high power target systems for ADS are relatively rare. The design of a 20 MW spallation target is very challenging because more than 60% of the beam power is deposited as heat in a small volume of the target system. In the present work, a numerical design study was performed to get optimal design parameters for a 20 MW spallation target for a 1000 MW ADS. The cylindrical beam tube and the hemispherical beam window were adopted in the basic target design concept with 1 GeV proton energy, and the thermal-hydraulic and the structural analyses were performed with the CFX and ANSYS codes. The beam window diameter and thickness were varied to find the optimal parameter set based on the design criteria: maximum lead–bismuth eutectic (LBE) temperature <500 °C, maximum beam window temperature <600 °C, maximum LBE velocity <2 m/s, and the maximum beam window stress <160 MPa. The results of the present study show that a 40 cm wide proton beam with a uniform beam profile should be adopted for the spallation target of 20 MW power. It was found that a 2.5 mm thick beam window is needed to sustain the mechanical load.     

A source efficient ADS for minor actinides burning

Taking advantage of the good neutron economy of nitride fuel, a compact accelerator-driven system (ADS) for burning of minor actinide fuels has been designed, based on the fuel assembly geometry developed for the European Facility for Industrial Transmutation (EFIT) within the EUROTRANS project. The small core size of the new design permits reduction of the size of the spallation target region, which enhances proton source efficiency by about 80% compared to the reference oxide version of EFIT. Additionally, adoption of the austenitic steel 15/15Ti as clad material allows to safely reduce the fuel pin pitch, which leads to an increase of fuel volume fraction and therefore makes the neutron energy spectrum faster, consequently increasing minor actinides fission probabilities. Our calculations show that one can dramatically increase neutron source efficiency up to 0.95 without a significant loss of neutron source intensity, i.e. having high proton source efficiency. Consequently, the accelerator current required for operation of the ADS with a fission power of 201 MWth and a burn-up of 27 GW d/t per year (365 EFPD) is reduced by 67%.     

Preliminary physics study of the Lead–Bismuth Eutectic spallation target for China Initiative Accelerator-Driven System

The Lead-Bismuth Eutectic(LBE) spallation target has been considered as one of the two alternatives for the spallation target for China Initiative Accelerator-Driven System.This paper reports the preliminary study on physical feasibility of a U-type LBE target with window.The simulation results based on Monte Carlo transport code MCNPX indicate that the spallation neutron yield is about 2.5 per proton.The maximum spallation neutron flux is observed at about 3 cm below the lowest part of the window.When the LBE target is coupled with the reactor,the reactor neutrons from the fission reaction increased the neutron field significantly.The energy deposition of highenergy protons is the main heat source;the spallation neutrons and reactor neutrons contribute only a small fraction.The maximum energy deposition in the LBE is about 590 W/cm~3 and that in the target window is about319 W/cm~3.To estimate the lifetime of the target window,we have calculated the radiation damages.The maximum displacement production rate in the target window is about10 dpa/FPY.The hydrogen and helium production rates generated during normal operation were also evaluated.By analyzing the residual nucleus in the target during the steady operation,we estimated the accumulated quantities of the extreme radioactivity toxicant ~(210)Po in the LBE target loop.The results would be helpful for the evaluation of the target behavior and will be beneficial to the optimization of the target design work of the experimental facilities.     

PDS-XADS散裂靶热工水力分析

本文对小型加速器驱动的次临界系统（ADS）--PDS-XADS散裂靶进行了热工水力分析。分析的XADS型实验堆基于欧洲PDS-XADS实验项目的设计,使用铅铋合金（LBE）作为冷却剂。散裂靶是ADS的核心部件之一,用以确保反应堆功率维持在指定水平。本文利用计算流体力学软件ANSYS CFX 11.0对散裂靶的下部区域进行热工水力分析。分析采用稳态计算、剪切应力输运（SST）湍流模型,在壁面边界条件处采用自动壁面函数法,针对不同的散裂靶设计进行计算流体力学（CFD）分析,最后根据散裂靶设计限值选择最优设计方案。     

Preparation and verification of mixed high-energy neutron crosssection library for ADS

An accelerator-driven subcritical system(ADS)is driven by an external spallation neutron source, which is generated from a heavy metal spallation target to maintain stable operation of the subcritical core, where the energy of the spallation neutrons can reach several hundred megaelectron volts. However, the upper neutron energy limit of nuclear cross-section databases, which are widely used in critical reactor physics calculations, is generally 20 MeV.This is not suitable for simulating the transport of highenergy spallation neutrons in the ADS. We combine the Japanese JENDL-4.0/HE high-energy evaluation database and the ADS-HE and ADS 2.0 libraries from the International Atomic Energy Agency and process all the data files for nuclides with energies greater than 20 MeV. We use the continuous pointwise cross-section program NJOY2016 to generate the ACE-formatted cross-section data library IMPC-ADS at multiple temperature points. Using the IMPC-ADS library, we calculate 10 critical benchmarks of the International Criticality Safety Benchmark Evaluation Project manual, the 14-MeV fixed-source problem of the Godiva sphere, and the neutron flux of the ADS subcritical core by MCNPX. To verify the correctness of the IMPCADS, the results were compared with those calculated using the ENDF/B-VII.0 library. The results showed thatthe IMPC-ADS is reliable in effective multiplication factor and neutron flux calculations, and it can be applied to physical analysis of the ADS subcritical reactor core.     

Numerical design of a 20 MW lead–bismuth spallation target with an injection tube

A spallation target system is a key component to be developed for an accelerator driven system (ADS). It is known that a 15–25 MW spallation target is required for a practical 1000 MW_th ADS. The design of a 20 MW spallation target is very challenging because more than 60% of the beam power is deposited as heat in a small volume of the target system. In the present work, a numerical design study was performed to obtain the optimal design parameters for a 20 MW spallation target for a 1000 MW_th ADS. A dual injection tube was proposed for a reduction of the lead–bismuth eutectic (LBE) flow rate at the target channel. The results of the present study show that a 30 cm wide proton beam with a uniform beam distribution should be adopted for a spallation target of a 20 MW power. When the dual LBE injection tube is employed, the LBE flow rate could be reduced by a factor of 7 without reducing the allowable beam current.     

Reaction rate analyses of accelerator-driven system experiments with 100 MeV protons at Kyoto University Critical Assembly

At the Kyoto University Critical Assembly, a series of reaction rate experiments is conducted on the accelerator-driven system (ADS) with spallation neutrons generated by the combined use of 100 MeV protons and a lead–bismuth target in the subcritical state. The reaction rates are measured by the foil activation method to obtain neutron spectrum information on ADS. Numerical calculations are performed with MCNP6.1 and JENDL/HE-2007 for high-energy protons and spallation process, JENDL-4.0 for transport and JENDL/D-99 for reaction rates. That the reaction rates depend on subcriticality is revealed by the accuracy of the C/E (calculation/experiment) values. Nonetheless, the accuracy of the reaction rates at high-energy thresholds remains an important issue in the fixed-source calculations. From reaction rate analyses, the indium ratio is newly defined as another spectrum index with the combined use of ¹¹⁵In(n, γ)^116mIn and ¹¹⁵In(n, n′)^115mIn reaction rates, and considered useful in examining the neutron spectrum information on ADS with spallation neutrons.     

Preliminary design of inner radius of spallation target of an accelerator driven subcritical reactor for waste transmutation (ADS-NWT)

This paper presented preliminary design studies of inner radius of spallation target for lead-bismuth cooled accelerator driven sub-critical reactor, aimed at reducing proton beam current while simultaneously maintaining high Minor Actinides transmutation performance. Lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) and uranium-free metallic dispersion fuel were used as the coolant and the fuel for this 1000 MWt reactor. By taking Proton Transmutation Support Ratio (PTSR) as an evaluation index, the inner radius of the spallation target was designed for this reference reactor and the optimized design proposal could obtain the higher transmutation performance. The preliminary study found that when the inner radius of the spallation target ran up to a certain value, the spallation neutron yield would have greater influence on the transmutation performance.     

Research and Development Program on Accelerator Driven Subcritical System in JAEA

For a dedicated transmutation system, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) has been proceeding with the research and development on an accelerator-driven subcritical system (ADS). The ADS proposed by JAEA is a lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) cooled fast subcritical core with 800 MWth. JAEA has started a comprehensive research and development (R&D) program since the fiscal year of 2002 to acquire knowledge and elemental technology that are necessary for the validation of engineering feasibility of the ADS. In this paper, the outline and the results in the first three-year stage of the program are reported. Items of R&D were concentrated on three technical areas peculiar to the ADS: (1) a superconducting linear accelerator (SC-LINAC), (2) the LBE as spallation target and core coolant, and (3) a subcritical core design and reactor physics of the ADS. For R&D on the accelerator, a prototype cryomodule was built and its good performance in electric field was examined. For R&D on the LBE, various technical data for material corrosion, thermal-hydraulics and radioactive impurity were obtained by loop tests and reactor irradiation. For R&D on the subcritical core, engineering feasibility for the LBE cooled tank-type ADS was discussed using thermal-hydraulic and structural analysis not only in normal operation but also in transient situations. Reactor physics experiments for subcritical monitoring and physics parameters of the ADS were also performed at critical assemblies.     

加速器驱动的次临界系统散裂靶热工水力研究

散裂靶位于加速器驱动的次临界系统（ADS）的中心,为核嬗变提供所需的中子源。通过分析散裂靶的热工要求,选取铅铋合金（LBE）作为ADS的靶材料和冷却剂。使用MCNP程序计算质子束轰击靶区产生的能量沉积,并使用CFD程序FLUENT计算靶区热工特性。分析了不同设计参数及不同靶窗形状对ADS靶区温度分布和速度分布的影响,得到满足热工要求的可选方案。     

Burn-up characteristics of ADS system utilizing the fuel composition from MOX PWRs spent fuel

Burn-up characteristics of accelerator-driven system, ADS has been evaluated utilizing the fuel composition from MOX PWRs spent fuel. The system consists of a high intensity proton beam accelerator, spallation target, and sub-critical reactor core. The liquid lead–bismuth, Pb–Bi, as spallation target, was put in the center of the core region. The general approach was conducted throughout the nitride fuel that allows the utilities to choose the strategy for destroying or minimizing the most dangerous high level wastes in a fast neutron spectrum. The fuel introduced surrounding the target region was the same with the composition of MOX from 33 GWd/t PWRs spent-fuel with 5 year cooling and has been compared with the fuel composition from 45 and 60 GWd/t PWRs spent-fuel with the same cooling time. The basic characteristics of the system such as burn-up reactivity swing, power density, neutron fluxes distribution, and nuclides densities were obtained from the results of the neutronics and burn-up analyses using ATRAS computer code of the Japan Atomic Energy research Institute, JAERI.     

Steady-state neutronic analysis of converting the UK CONSORT reactor for ADS experiments

CONSORT is the UK’s last remaining civilian research reactor, and its present core is soon to be removed. This study examines the feasibility of re-using the reactor facility for accelerator-driven systems research by replacing the fuel and installing a spallation neutron target driven by an external proton accelerator. MCNP5/MCNPX were used to model alternative, high-density fuels and their coupling to the neutrons generated by 230 MeV protons from a cyclotron striking a solid tungsten spallation target side-on to the core. Low-enriched U₃Si₂ and U–9Mo were considered as candidates, with only U–9Mo found to be feasible in the compact core; fuel element size and arrangement were kept the same as the original core layout to minimise thermal hydraulic and other changes. Reactor thermal power up to 2.5 kW is predicted for a k_eff of 0.995, large enough to carry out reactor kinetic experiments.     

Polonium formation in Pb-55.5Bi under proton irradiation

Lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) has been proposed both as spallation target and as coolant in a future accelerator driven system (ADS). The safety analyses require knowledge concerning the elements formed during proton irradiation, and their volatility. Discs of lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) were irradiated with protons having 71 and 590 MeV energy resp. to analyse Po-isotopes formation. The generation of the isotopes Po 206 and 208 was clearly indicated. The ratio ²⁰⁶Po/²⁰⁸Po is dependent on the proton energy and as well on the beam intensity. In parallel to the analytical examinations calculations were carried out using the FLUKA Monte Carlo code to compare the analytical results with the calculations. The evaporation behaviour of irradiated LBE discs was examined as well whereby volatile Hg was found, but no Po evaporation was detected under the chosen conditions.     

Impact of PHITS spallation models on the neutronics design of an accelerator-driven system

The impact of different spallation models and parametrisation of nucleon–nucleus interactions in the particle transport code PHITS on the nuclear characteristics of an accelerator-driven system (ADS) is investigated. Cut-off neutrons below 20 MeV calculated using the default option of the current spallation model (i.e. Liège intranuclear cascade (INC) model version 4.6, INCL4.6) are found to be 14% less than those calculated by the old spallation model (i.e. Bertini INC model). This decrease increases the proton beam current that drives the 800-MW thermal power and impacts various ADS parameters, including material damage, nuclear heating of the proton beam window and the inventory of spallation products. To validate these options based on the ADS neutronics design, we conduct benchmark calculations of the total and non-elastic cross sections, thick target neutron yields and activation reaction rate distributions. The results suggest that Pearlstein–Niita systematics, which is a default option of the nucleon–nucleus interaction parametrisation, would be the best option and that Bertini INC is better suited for cut-off neutrons than INCL4.6. However, because of the difficulty in making a definite conclusion on the spallation models, we conclude that relatively large uncertainty in the cut-off neutrons, which is the difference between the two spallation models (i.e. 14%), should be considered.     

从广义自持链式反应观点看加速器驱动系统

用广义自持链式反应的观点探讨了加速器驱动系统 (ADS)的基本内涵。认为次临界反应堆、质子加速器和靶所组合的整体仍可看成一个 (临界的 )自持链式反应堆。这个反应堆不同于通常临界反应堆的特点是每次裂变后的二次中子不仅包含裂变释放的中子而且还包含部分裂变释能 (通过质子加速器及靶 )所转换的中子。正是有了这些附加中子 ,使得加速器驱动系统每次裂变的有效二次中子数增加了。一个ADS系统能够稳定运行的条件是ADS的次临界堆和加速器能够相互匹配使得ADS系统的有效二次中子数达到这样的水平 ,以致在ADS系统内能够形成自持的中子链式反应。因此尽管ADS的反应堆部分是次临界的 ,但从ADS整体来看只要质子加速器与次临界反应堆匹配得当 ,ADS系统是可以像通常临界反应堆那样 ,维持自持的链式反应的 (或临界的 )。给出了ADS系统维持自持链式反应的匹配条件 (广义临界条件 )。最后根据ADS系统的特点探讨了ADS在核废物处理 (嬗变 )、提高核燃料增殖效率及核能开发中的作用。