Modeling the evolution of the structure and properties of alloys for an Al-Zn-Mg system in ageing

An investigation into and modeling of artificial ageing in alloys of an Al-Zn-Mg system are carried out. To determine the kinetic parameters of the dissociation of a supersaturated solid solution, methods of transmission electron microscopy, a measurement of electric resistance at heightened temperature, and differential scanning calorimetry are used. To describe the evolution of the structure in ageing, the Avrami equation and the ageing time dependence of the particle size are applied. A comparison between the computational and experimental values of particle sizes showed the sufficiently high accuracy of the model. Based on this, the yield strength for alloys of the system under consideration in the aged state was computed. The computational error was 11%, which is comparable with the error of the experimental determination of the yield strength.     

自然时效对7N01铝合金组织和性能的影响

通过电导率、力学性能测试和高分辨电镜分析研究了自然时效对7N01合金组织和性能的影响。结果表明:在自然时效中,由于过饱和固溶体不均匀析出与基体共格的析出相,合金电导率随着自然时效时间的延长逐渐降低,时效20 d后基本达到稳定状态。合金的强度随着时效时间的延长逐渐增大,在20 d后达到稳定,抗拉强度在400 MP以上,屈服强度在260 MPa以上,合金的延伸率在自然时效1 d后达到稳定值(约为15.5%)。稳定态合金的强化相主要为尺寸较小的GPⅡ区。此外,弯折试验表明合金具有良好的弯折性能,在自然时效10～60 d内未出现肉眼可见的裂纹。     

The aging response of Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mg directionally solidified eutectics

The microstructure and mechanical properties of directionally solidified Al-Cu eutectic and the microstructure of directionally solidified Al-Cu-Mg eutectic alloys have been studied in as-grown, quenched, and aged conditions. In both systems the microstructure of the aluminum-rich α phase responded to aging treatments in a manner like that of dilute alloys of comparable composition. The cooling rate of the alloys from the solutionizing temperature is important in determining final α-phase composition, since the diffusion path to the lamellar interphase boundaries is only on the order of 1 μ in length. Even when water quenched, the aged α lamellae contain precipitate-free zones along the interphase boundaries, probably due to the epitaxial precipitation of solute as CuAl₂ or CuMgAl₂ onto the corresponding bulk phases. Mechanical testing of the Al-Cu binary composite in tension and compression shows that the strength of properly aged specimens is twice that of as-grown material. The calculated α- phase yield strength is generally higher than expected, and there is a strength-differential effect whose magnitude varies with heat treatment.     

Section of the isothermal tetrahedron of the Al-Cu-Mg-Zr phase diagram at 490°C

The phase equilibria in the Al-Cu-Mg-Zr system at 490°C have been studied for Al-rich alloys with 0.3% Zr and from 0 to 10% Cu or Mg. The (Al) solid solution is found to be in equilibrium with only binary θ(CuAl₂) and ZrAl₃ and ternary S (CuMgAl₂) phases of the ternary Al-Cu-Mg system. The section of the isothermal tetrahedron of the Al-Cu-Mg-Zr phase diagram at 490°C, which corresponds to 0.3% Zr and up to 10% Cu or Mg, is constructed.     

Modeling solid solution strengthening in nickel alloys

The yield stress of multicomponent nickel solid solution alloys has not been modeled in the past with respect to the effects of composition and temperature. There have been investigations of the effect on the yield stress of solutes in binary systems at a fixed temperature, but the effects on the yield stress of multiple solute elements and temperature changes have not been investigated. In this article, two different forms of the trough model are considered for nickel-base alloys to determine the most applicable model for solid solution strengthening in the system. The yield stresses of three binary nickel-chromium and three ternary nickel alloys were determined at a range of temperatures. The yield stress of the alloys was then modeled using the Feltham equation. The constants determined in fitting the Feltham equation to the experimental data were then applied to other experimental solid solution alloys and also to published information on commercial solid solution nickel alloys. It was found that the yield stress of the nickel solid solution alloys could be modeled successfully using the Feltham equation.     

Effect of dissolved tungsten on the deformation of 70Ni-30Fe alloys

A series of Ni-Fe alloys containing various levels of tungsten in solid solution have been prepared as a means to assess the influence of solid solution strengthening on the mechanical behavior of monolithic 70Ni-30Fe. In particular, 70Ni-30Fe alloys plus equilibrium concentrations of tungsten in solid solution nominally correspond to the compositions associated with the matrix-only portion of certain tungsten heavy alloys, that is, alloys comprised of a high volume fraction of nominally pure tungsten particles embedded within a minority Ni-Fe-W based matrix. The study shows that the working solubility of tungsten within the 70Ni-30Fe base composition increases slightly with temperature, from approximately 21 wt pct at room temperature to approximately 23 wt pct at 1400 °C. Increasing the level of tungsten in solid solution leads to increases in room-temperature yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility. In contrast, the deformation characteristics of the alloys, as quantified by the power-law work-hardening exponent, n, and the strain-rate-sensitivity exponent, m, show little variation with tungsten solute concentration.     

The influences of multiscale-sized second-phase particles on ductility of aged aluminum alloys

Commercially aged aluminum alloys commonly contain second-phase particles of three class sizes, and all contribute appreciably to the mechanical properties observed at the macroscopic scale. In this article, a multiscale model was constructed to describe the individual and coupling influences of the three types of second-phase particles on tensile ductility. The nonlinear relationships between the parameters of particles, including volume fraction, size, aspect ratio, shape, and ductility, were then quantitatively established and experimentally validated by the measured results from disc-shaped precipitate containing Al-Cu-Mg alloys and needle-shaped precipitate containing Al-Mg-Si alloys, as well as by using other researchers’ previously published results. In addition, we discuss extending this model to predict the fracture toughness of aluminum alloys.     

Corrosion behavior on the different zones of AA2014 welded aluminum alloy by AA5554 filler aluminum alloy with TIG process: Before and after solution heat treatments followed by ageing

In this work, we have studied the effects of solution heat treatment followed by ageing on the corrosion behavior of AA2014 aluminum alloy welded by AA5554 aluminum alloy. Two samples are then analyzed, in the first case the solution heat treatment is followed by quenching and natural ageing of 90 days (sample 1), and in the second one, the solution heat treatment is followed by quenching and artificial ageing of twelve hours at 190°C (sample 2). The principal observations can be summarized as: evaporation of magnesium in fusion zone, and diffusion of magnesium and copper from the heat affected zone to the fusion zone were identified. Solution heat treatment, quenching and 90 days of natural ageing leads to a uniform corrosion in the heat affected zone and in the fusion one, when the material is immersed for ten seconds in Keller reagent solution. After immersion in 0.3% NaCl chloride solution, and after solution treatment and quenching, we observed that applied artificial ageing at 190°C causes localized corrosion surrounding precipitates and then develops uniform corrosion in all zones, particularly in the fusion one. Finally, it is noted that the surface of different zones became nobler after applying solution heat treatment followed by natural ageing.     

A process model for age hardening of aluminium alloys—I. The model

Process modelling techniques are used to describe the changes in yield strength due to age hardening of heat-treatable aluminium alloys. A model for the isothermal ageing curve is developed. This is demonstrated for a number of alloys and the success of the approach is assessed. Applications and a new diagram, showing the variation of strength with temperature and time, are described in an accompanying paper.     

Strengthening mechanisms in solid solution aluminum alloys

A number of commercial and high-purity non-heat-treatable aluminum alloys are investigated in this work. It is found that both magnesium and manganese in solid solution give a nearly linear concentration dependence of the strength at a given strain for commercial alloys. This deviates from high-purity AlMg binary alloys, where a parabolic concentration dependence is found. Mn in solid solution is found to give a considerably higher strengthening effect per atom than Mg, both in terms of yield stress and initial work hardening rate. This strengthening effect is stronger comparing commercial grades to high-purity alloys. This enhanced strengthening is believed to be a synergy or clustering effect caused by interaction between Mn atoms and trace elements, probably silicon, in solid solution.     

运用数理统计方法分析酒钢管线钢屈强比影响因素

石油、天然气输送管道通常服役环境较恶劣:管道压力大、输送介质复杂,管道的安全问题日显突出,对管线钢屈强比提出更高要求.屈强比较高是长期困扰CSP流程生产管线钢的难题,运用数理统计方法对生产管线钢的过程工艺参数进行对比分析,查找影响屈强比的关键因素,并通过采取有效措施:调整化学成分、过程工艺参数,提高固溶强化效果,使其屈...     

The effect of microstructure and composition on the properties of vapour quenched AlCr alloys—II. Tensile properties

The effect of chromium and iron additions and of annealing and working on the microstructure and tensile properties of vapour quenched AlCr and AlCrFe alloys has been determined. Tensile strengths of the worked AlCrFe alloys were in the range 568–831 MPa. Chromium in solid solution or iron present as iron-rich precipitates increased the yield stress by 44.7 MPa/at.%Cr and 333 MPa/at.%Fe respectively. The contributions to the yield strength of AlCr alloys were solid solution 40% and dislocation density/cell size 60% and to the yield strength of AlCrFe alloys were solid solution 25%, iron-rich precipitates 42% and dislocation density/cell size 33%. Vapour quenching may allow the more efficient use of alloying elements in the strengthening of Al-alloys and greater flexibility in obtaining the desired combination of solute concentration, particle volume fraction and particle size.     

SLM成形Al-Cu-Mg 合金的摩擦磨损性能

铝合金具有低密度、高比强度、较好的耐蚀性等优点，被广泛应用于航空、船舶和汽车等领域；选区激 光熔化成形可以一次性成形复杂零件，具有良好的应用前景。对选区激光熔化（SLM）成形的Al-Cu-Mg 合金 摩擦磨损性能进行了研究，并与成分相近的铸造ZL205A合金性能进行对比，结果表明，采用SLM工艺成形可 细化合金晶粒，改变Al2Cu 的尺寸与分布，使晶粒细小均匀。与铸造ZL205A合金相比，SLM成形Al-Cu-Mg 合金的磨损率和摩擦因数均有不同幅度的降低。SLM成形Al-Cu-Mg 合金横截面的耐磨性最好，纵截面耐磨 性次之，铸造ZL205A的耐磨性最差。SLM成形Al-Cu-Mg 合金的磨损机制随着载荷的变化而不同：低载荷时 的磨损机制以磨粒磨损为主，粘着磨损和塑性挤出磨损并存；中载荷时的磨损机制为磨粒磨损、粘着磨损并伴 随氧化磨损；高载荷时的磨损机制主要为剥层磨损、粘着磨损和氧化磨损的综合作用。     

Contribution of Lattice Distortion to Solid Solution Strengthening in a Series of Refractory High Entropy Alloys

We present an experimental approach for revealing the impact of lattice distortion on solid solution strengthening in a series of body-centered-cubic (bcc) Al-containing, refractory high entropy alloys (HEAs) from the Nb-Mo-Cr-Ti-Al system. By systematically varying the Nb and Cr content, a wide range of atomic size difference as a common measure for the lattice distortion was obtained. Single-phase, bcc solid solutions were achieved by arc melting and homogenization as well as verified by means of scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The atomic radii of the alloying elements for determination of atomic size difference were recalculated on the basis of the mean atomic radii in and the chemical compositions of the solid solutions. Microhardness (μH) at room temperature correlates well with the deduced atomic size difference. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of microscopic slip lead to pronounced temperature dependence of mechanical strength. In order to account for this particular feature, we present a combined approach, using μH, nanoindentation, and compression tests. The athermal proportion to the yield stress of the investigated equimolar alloys is revealed. These parameters support the universality of this aforementioned correlation. Hence, the pertinence of lattice distortion for solid solution strengthening in bcc HEAs is proven.     

Differential scanning calorimetry and electron diffraction investigation on low-temperature aging in Al-Zn-Mg alloys

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) has been combined with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to investigate the low-temperature decomposition processes taking place in an Al-5 wt pct Zn-1 wt pct Mg alloy. It was confirmed that two types of GP zones, i.e., GP(I) (solute-rich clusters) and GP(II) (vacancy-rich clusters), formed independently during decomposition of the supersaturated solid solution. The GP(I) zones form at a relatively low aging temperature and dissolve when the aging temperature is increased. The GP(II) zones are stable over a wider range of temperatures. To investigate the nature of the zones in the Al-Zn-Mg alloy, differential scanning calorimetry and transmission electron microscopy have also been carried out on binary Al-Zn alloys containing 5 wt pct and 10 wt pct Zn. In these Al-Zn alloys, GP zones formed rapidly during quenching, and they gave rise to characteristic electron diffraction patterns identical to those from GP(II) in the Al-Zn-Mg alloy system, implying that GP(II) zones in Al-Zn-Mg alloys are very similar to the zones formed in binary Al-Zn alloys. Thus, it is likely that GP(II) zones in Al-Zn-Mg alloys are zinc-rich clusters. In the Al-5 wt pct Zn-1 wt pct Mg alloy, both GP(I) and GP(II) were found to transform to η′ and/or η particles during heating in the differential scanning calorimeter. The η′ was also observed to form after prolonged isothermal aging of the Al-Zn-Mg alloy at 75 °C or after short aging times at 125 °C.     

Microstructural evolution and transformation pathways in the near monotectic Zn rich ZnBi alloys during rapid solidification

The possible pathways for microstructural development under nonequilibrium condition by the rapid solidification of alloys containing liquid miscibility gap have been studied using ZnBi binary alloys as a model system. The primary aim is to explore the possibility of the intermediate formation of a thermodynamically unstable solid solution as a precursor phase which can spontaneously decompose to yield nanodispersions. It is shown that the information of crystallographic shape of the nanosized dispersions obtained by transmission electron microscopy and the derived point groups can be utilised to arrive at a definite conclusion of this possibility. Our results establish the formation of such a solid solution owing to the kinetic process of nonequilibrium trapping in spite of a very strong clustering tendency. The latter leads to the spontaneous decomposition of the solid solution during quenching to yield nanodispersions.     

Effects of silicon addition on the first stage of

The influence of silicon on the precipitation kinetics of Al-Cu-Mg alloys is not yet understood, although its effect on the improvement of mechanical properties is well established. In this study, the kinetics of the first stage of precipitation in Al-1.52 pct Cu-0.75 pct Mg alloy con-taining 0.49, 0.76, and 1.03 pct Si were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. From the calorimetric data, the extent of reactionY and the reaction rate(dY/dt) were evaluated as functions of the reaction temperature. The rates are expressible by the relation(dY/dt) = (1 —Y)k₀ exp(— Q*/RT), whereK ₀ is the frequency factor andQ* is the activation energy. For the alloys containing 0.49, 0.76, and 1.03 pct Si, the activation energies are 76.7, 70.1, and 64.6 kJ/mole, respectively, andk ₀ changes systematically with silicon content. Critical analysis of these results and those available in the literature on the silicon-free and 0.23 pct Si containing alloys shows that GP zones precipitate in the 0.49, 0.76, and 1.03 pct Si alloys, while only GPB zones precipitate in the silicon-free and 0.23 pct Si containing alloys. The sudden change in the precipitation behavior occurs due to the preferential removal of magnesium from the matrix by the insoluble particles which are present in 0.49, 0.76, and 1.03 pct Si alloys. The alteration of the matrix composition is also responsible for systematic decrease in the activation energy.     

Modeling the age-hardening behavior of Al-Si-Cu alloys

We describe a new approach for modeling the age-hardening behavior of Al-Si-Cu cast alloys, that utilizes recently proposed micromechanical models of precipitation strengthening which connect key microstructural parameters for realistic precipitate morphologies (e.g., {100} plates) with the age-hardening response. This approach is illustrated and tested for a series of 319-type Al alloys (which we refer to as W319), where the microstructural parameters of ϑ′ plates measured by transmission electron microscopy and a first-principles/computational-thermodynamics model of ϑ′ volume fraction are used in the micromechanical model to predict precipitation strengthening. Thus, the precipitation-strengthening contribution contains no free parameters in our approach. An aging temperature- and time-dependent component that describes the strengthening of the Guinier-Preston (GP) zones and solid-solution copper, as well as a constant intrinsic strength, is combined with the calculated precipitation strength to predict the yield strength with a minimum of fitting parameters. This yield-strength model provides a good predictor of the yield strength of W319, and the methodology should be more generally applicable to all industrial cast alloys strengthened primarily by ϑ′. We also discuss limitations of the present approach and point to areas for improvement in future studies.     

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys

The effect of alloy composition on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of four spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys was investigated. Precipitation kinetics for the alloys was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and artificial aging studies coupled with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. DSC/TEM analysis revealed that the spray-deposited alloys displayed similar precipitation behavior to that found in previously published studies on ingot alloys, with the Ag containing alloys exhibiting the presence of two peaks corresponding to precipitation of both Ω-Al₂Cu and θ′-Al₂Cu and the Ag-free alloy exhibiting only one peak for precipitation of θ′. The TEM analysis of each of the Ag-containing alloys revealed increasing amounts of Al₂₀Mn₃Cu₂ with increasing Mn. In the peak and over-aged conditions, Ag-containing alloys revealed the presence of Ω, with some precipitation of θ′ for alloys 248 and 251. Tensile tests on each of the alloys in the peak-aged and overaged (1000 hours at 160 °C) conditions were performed at both room and elevated temperatures. These tests revealed that the peak-aged alloys exhibited relatively high stability up to 160 °C, with greater reductions in strength being observed at 200 °C (especially for the high Mn, low Cu/Mg ratio (6.7) alloy 251). The greatest stability of tensile strength following extended exposure at 160 °C was exhibited by the high Cu/Mg ratio (14) alloy 248, which revealed reductions in yield strength of about 2.5 pct, with respect to the peak-aged condition, for the alloys tested at both room temperature and 160 °C.     

Microstructure–yield strength models for heat treatment of Al–Si–Mg casting alloys II: modelling microstructure and yield strength evolution

A microstructure–strength mathematical model for the heat treatment for commercially significant Al–Si–Mg casting alloys was developed and validated. As part of the model development, the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties during heat treatment of an industrially cast A356 aluminium alloy was studied in an experimental investigation. A model framework to predict the evolution of microstructure and yield strength during heat treatment was proposed for hypoeutectic Al–Si–Mg casting alloys and validated against experimental measurements. In part II of this paper, the model framework to predict the evolution of microstructure and yield strength during the ageing process is described. The framework is focussed on the development of strength during natural and artificial ageing and includes the relative influences of alloy chemistry and the prior solution treatment and natural ageing history of the material. Model validation has been done using independent experimental and literature data, and the model has been applied to industrial heat treatment scenarios in order to determine the potential for process optimisation.

On a développé et validé un modèle mathématique de la microstructure-résistance du traitement thermique des alliages de moulage d’Al-Si-Mg ayant une importance commerciale. Faisant partie du développement du modèle, on a étudié, par examen expérimental, l’évolution de la microstructure et des propriétés mécaniques lors du traitement thermique d’un alliage d’aluminium A356 moulé industriellement. On a proposé une structure de modèle prédisant l’évolution de la microstructure et de la limite d’élasticité lors du traitement thermique des alliages de moulage hypo-eutectiques d’Al-Si-Mg et on l’a validé par des mesures expérimentales. Dans la seconde partie de cet article, on décrit la structure du modèle prédisant l’évolution de la microstructure et de la limite d’élasticité lors du traitement de vieillissement. La structure se concentre sur le développement de la résistance lors du vieillissement naturel et artificiel et comprend les influences relatives de la composition chimique de l’alliage et du traitement antérieur de mise en solution et de l’histoire du vieillissement naturel du matériau. On a effectué la validation du modèle en utilisant des données expérimentales indépendantes et des données de la littérature, et on a appliqué le modèle à des scénarios de traitement thermique industriel afin de déterminer le potentiel d’optimisation du procédé.