黄金茶工夫红茶的甜味量化及其与主要滋味物质相关性分析

以黄金茶工夫红茶为研究对象,量化评价茶汤甜味强度,检测主要滋味物质含量,并分析两者相关关系。结果表明：不同厂家的黄金茶工夫红茶甜味强度差异明显;糖类甜味物质中麦芽糖含量最高,氨基酸类甜味物质中丝氨酸含量最高;甜味物质（包括单糖、双糖和甜味氨基酸）和茶氨酸含量均与甜味强度呈正相关,且糖总量与甜味强度呈显著（P＜0.05）正相关（r=0.781）;儿茶素、咖啡碱、没食子酸、茶黄素、茶红素含量与甜味强度呈负相关,且儿茶素总量、茶黄素含量与甜味强度呈显著（P＜0.05）负相关（r=－0.811和－0.781）,添加表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯能降低糖类甜度。鉴于甜味是工夫红茶的分属滋味之一,甜味量化及相关性分析将为工夫红茶品质评判提供研究基础。     

The influence of sodium on liking and consumption of salty food

Excessive sodium (Na) intake has been linked to development of hypertension and related pathologies. In this study, we assessed if the sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration in a prototypical food influences the liking and intake of that food. In study 1, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed, and perceived salt intensity and liking for hash browns of varying sodium concentrations (40 mg, 120 mg, 170 mg, and 220 mg Na/100 g) were compared in a lab setting. In study 2, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed in a lab setting, and lunches consisting of hash browns, basic salad, and beverages were consumed freely in a dining setting on 4 separate occasions. Intake and liking ratings for hash browns were recorded after the lunch. In both studies, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were not associated with perceived saltiness, liking, or intake of hash browns. Liking and perceived salt taste intensity of hash browns were correlated (r = 0.547 P < 0.01), and in study 1 the 220 mg sodium hash brown was most liked (P < 0.05). In study 2, there was no association between Na concentration and liking or consumption of hash browns. In summary, liking of hash browns were influenced by whether testing was in a lab or dining room environment. In a dining room environment, large decreases (>50%) of sodium content of food were achievable with only minor decrease in liking and no effect on consumption of the food.     

The Associations Between Oral Complex Carbohydrate Sensitivity,BMI, Liking,and Consumption of Complex Carbohydrate Based Foods

Recent work suggests that humans may perceive complex carbohydrates and that their sensitivity to simple carbohydrates (i.e., glucose and sucrose) is independent from tasting complex carbohydrates. The aim of this study was to confirm whether humans could sense complex carbohydrates from a range of concentration levels; and if their oral sensitivity to complex carbohydrate relates to their BMI, liking, and consumption of complex carbohydrate‐based foods using a large sample group of adults. Participants’ (n = 92 females, age 23.7 ± 0.5 yr [range, 19 to 47 yr]) oral sensitivity towards complex carbohydrate (maltodextrin) and sweet taste function (glucose) was assessed by measuring detection threshold and suprathreshold intensity perception (gLMS). Participants were asked to complete an online version of a Food Frequency Questionnaire and a Likes and Dislikes Questionnaire. Hedonic ratings for complex carbohydrate and sweet solutions, as well as for a range of complex carbohydrate and sweet prototypical foods, were also measured. Consistent with previous findings, there was large interindividual variation in detection and intensity measures for maltodextrin and glucose. No significant associations were found between oral complex carbohydrate sensitivity, Body Mass Index (BMI), and frequency of consumption of complex carbohydrate‐based foods measured. Similarly, no differences were observed between liking of complex carbohydrates, BMI, and food intake. All in, these results from a large sample group further support the proposition that complex carbohydrates are not invisible to the human palate, and can be sensed in the oral cavity even at low concentration levels.     

Perception of sugar-acid mixtures in lemon juice drink

Acid was removed from lemon juice by selective adsorption on to a weak-base resin. Four levels each of sucrose and citric acid were combined factorially and dissolved in the low-acid juice, providing sixteen stimulus combinations. Using graphic-rating scales, assessors evaluated the stimuli for intensities of overall flavour, sweetness, and acidity; the relation of each of these intensities to ideal; and general acceptability. The various acceptability responses proved to be internally consistent, and the experiment suggested an optimum sugar-acid blend from the sixteen combinations. Ratings of overall flavour strength followed a compressed pattern in a factorial plot, with increasing concentrations of sugar and acid exerting a diminishingly small effect. In the perception of individual components, sucrose clearly suppressed the perceived intensity of citric acid, but only the highest concentration of acid unequivocally suppressed sweetness. There was a striking similarity between each set of intensity responses and the corresponding ideal-relative responses, suggesting a link between intensity and hedonics.     

PSYCHOPHYSICAL AND PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF COMMERCIAL APPLE JUICES

Psychophysical and psychometric relationships of five commercial apple juices were evaluated. Sugar content of apple juices ranged from 9.6 to 10.6%, acid content from 0.40 to 0.51% and phenolic content from 0.12 to 0.23%. Sweetness intensity (log) correlated with sugar content (r = 0.92), sourness intensity (log) with acid content (r = 0.93) and sugar-acid ratio (r = 0.92), and bitter/astringent taste (log) with phenolic content (r = 0.95) and the acid content (r = 0.91). The expected correlation between sweetness intensity and sugar acid ratio was absent. Preference (like/dislike) scores for thefive brands of apple juices were significantly different at p < 0.05 and ranged from 5.70 to 7.90. Preference did not correlate with any chemical contents, ratios or sensory intensities. Preference for apple juice was adequately described by multivariate equations combining aroma intensity either with sugar content (r²= 0.91) or sweetness intensity (r²= 0.99).     

Sugar reduction in probiotic chocolate-flavored milk: Impact on dynamic sensory profile and liking

Reducing the sugar content of processed products has been claimed to be one of the most efficient strategies for decreasing sugar intake. The present work aimed at studying the influence of sugar reduction on the dynamic sensory profile and consumers' liking of probiotic chocolate-flavored milks using a novel temporal methodology, and to evaluate two alternatives (vanilla flavor and thaumatin) to attenuate the sensory changes caused by sugar reduction. Probiotic chocolate-flavored milks were formulated with different reductions in added sugar (0, 20, 40 and 60%). Vanilla flavor and thaumatin were added to the sugar-reduced samples at two concentrations. Samples were evaluated by trained assessors using Temporal check-all-that-apply (TCATA). Additionally, consumers evaluated the dynamic sensory profile of a subset of the samples using TCATA and indicated their overall liking using a 9-point hedonic scale. Results from the present work showed that the main effect of sugar reduction on the dynamic sensory profile of the probiotic chocolate-flavored milks was related to changes in sweetness, bitterness and thickness. A reduction in added sugar of 20% led to changes in sweetness intensity, which were perceived by both trained assessors and consumers. However, consumers' liking was not significantly affected by sugar reduction up to 40%. The addition of vanilla flavor at suprathreshold concentrations was not efficient in increasing sweetness perception in chocolate-flavored milks with the lowest sugar reduction percentage, suggesting that it may not be a feasible alternative for reducing sugar in this product category. These results suggest that in many situations sugar content of food products could be decreased without a relevant impact on consumers' sensory and hedonic perception.     

Farm to Sensory Lab: Taste of Blueberry Fruit by Children and Adults

The average American child eats fewer fruits than recommended. Although taste is the primary motivator for food intake among children, little research has systematically measured children's liking of fruit and determined whether their preferences differ from adults. We phenotyped 49 children and their mothers to determine: (1) their liking of the taste of 3 blueberry cultivars (“Arcadia,” “Keecrisp,” and “Kestrel”) from 2 harvests for which total soluble solids were determined using a handheld Brix refractometer; (2) the association between liking and blueberry sugar content; and (3) the most preferred level of fructose, one of the primary sugars in blueberry fruit. Multiple methods, identical for all participants, assessed which cultivar they liked best. Dietary intake, determined via 24‐h dietary recall, revealed most children (73%) and adults (92%) did not meet dietary guidelines for fruit intake. We found that during the 1st harvest, Keecrisp was sweeter by 4° Brix than either Arcadia or Kestrel and was the cultivar most preferred by both children and adults. For the 2nd harvest, mothers liked each of the cultivars equally, but children preferred Arcadia, which was 2° Brix sweeter than the other 2 cultivars. Like other sugars, children's most preferred concentration of fructose was significantly higher than that of adults. In sum, children appear to be more sensitive to smaller variations in sweetness than are adults. Identifying drivers of fruit preference and assessing children's liking for whole fruits are important steps in developing strategies to increase fruit consumption among children.     

Sweetness intensity perception and pleasantness ratings of sucrose, aspartame solutions and cola among multi-ethnic Malaysian subjects

As the sugar intake of Malaysians is one of the highest in the Asia Pacific region, we wanted to investigate how this high prevalence of ‘sweet tooth’ is influenced by biological determinants like age, gender, ethnicity and Body Mass Index (BMI). This study therefore sought to use the generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale to evaluate the sweetness intensity perception and pleasantness ratings of not only three increasing suprathreshold concentrations of sucrose and a popular naturally-sweetened carbonated beverage - Coca-Cola®, but also their non-nutritive sweetener (NNS) counterparts - aspartame and Coca-Cola Light®. Taken together, the overall intensity of NNS solutions and beverage was perceived as significantly higher, but not for their pleasantness. The intensity perception and pleasantness of most sweet solutions were not significantly associated with gender and BMI. Overall, Malays had a lower perceived intensity of sweet stimuli compared to other ethnicities, but a conclusion of the influence of ethnicity on sweetness pleasantness could not be met. Lastly, sweetness intensity perception and pleasantness ratings for both colas decreased significantly with age.     

Assignation of Sweet Cherry Selections to 3 Taste Groupings Based on Perceived Sweetness and Sourness

ABSTRACT: Providing consumers with basic taste properties of sweet cherries at point of purchase would allow consumers to make purchase decisions based on fruit's intrinsic sensory attributes. The objective of this study was to develop a model to predict taste-grouping assignation of cherries into the following categories: (1) low sweetness/high sourness, (2) balance between sweetness and sourness, and (3) high sweetness/low sourness. A sensory panel (n = 10) was trained to recognize sweetness and sourness in 5 cultivars of sweet cherries and assign a taste grouping based on the perceived balance of sweetness and sourness. Four of these same cultivars were then evaluated for sweetness and sourness by a consumer panel (n = 117) and instrumentally for titratable acidity (TA) and soluble solids concentration (SSC). Results showed that for 3 of the 4 cherry cultivars, the sweetness/sourness balance of the cherries was not significantly different as evaluated instrumentally or by the trained panel. However, the balance determined by the consumer and the trained panel was different for 3 of the 4 cherry cultivars (P < 0.05). Based on trained panel perceived sweetness and sourness, a multinomial logit model was developed to predict the assignation of cherry taste grouping. The likelihood of group assignment depended on both the perceived sweetness and sourness of the cherry, with taste groupings agreed upon for 3 of 5 sweet cherry cultivars. As previous studies have indicated a positive relationship between cherry sweetness and sourness to consumer acceptance, these groupings show promise for assisting consumers in cherry selection at the point of purchase. Practical Applications: The prediction models proposed in this study suggest that both sweetness and sourness are important in the cherry characterization and the ratio between the 2 attributes may be appropriate for making taste-grouping assignments. These groupings may then be used to provide additional sensory information to consumers to assist them in cherry selection at the point of purchase.     

Hedonic tests in different locations as predictors of apple juice consumption at home in elderly and young subjects

The objective of this study was to evaluate the predictive value of hedonic tests on apple juice carried out in a sensory laboratory, University common room and at home (post-consumption test) on ad libitum home consumption measured over 5 consecutive days. Thirty-five elderly volunteers (59–88 years old) and 33 young subjects (20–30 years old) assessed the degree of liking five apple juices varying in sweetness (0, 2, 4, 7 and 10% w/w sucrose added) on a nine-point hedonic scale. Both age groups judged similarly the juice with the lowest sugar concentrations, whereas the juice with 2% sugar added received lower scores from the elderly compared to the young participants. Those samples with higher sweetness (4, 7 and 10%) received higher scores from the elderly compared to the young people. The sample with no sugar added had higher mean score (all the subjects) in the home test (6.92±1.78) compared to both laboratory (5.51±2.15) and common room (5.92±2.08). No such differences were observed for the juices with the other sugar contents. In the elderly group, 1-day intake of apple juice remained on a similar level, regardless of sweetness liking, while among young adults the intake varied, and was highest for juices that were liked most (with 0 and 2% sucrose added). The results showed that hedonic ratings have a limited value as predictors of fruit juice consumption at home. The correlation between rated degree of liking and intake was low, especially for the elderly (r=0.39), indicating that factors other than pleasantness may affect intake. Among three test conditions, the lowest correlation of juice intake was obtained with laboratory test results (r=0.38), relatively higher—when hedonic tests were conducted in common room setting (r=0.49), or as the post-consumption test at home (r=0.73). Further research is required on sensory procedures relevant for the elderly, which together with some other nonsensory factors, would give a better prediction of consumption.     

Analysis of various sweeteners in low‐sugar mixed fruit jam: equivalent sweetness,time‐intensity analysis and acceptance test

For a sweetener to successfully replace sucrose in food formulations, studies must first be conducted to determine the concentrations of the sweeteners to be used and their equivalent sweetness compared with sucrose. After establishing the optimal concentration of each sweetener, it is necessary to determine which is more similar to sucrose. The objective of this study was to determine the equivalent amount of different sweeteners, necessary to promote the same degree of ideal sweetness in mixed fruit (marolo, sweet passion fruit and soursop) jam and to characterise the time–intensity profile and consumer acceptance. With respect to the mixed fruit jam containing 40% (w/w) of sucrose, sucralose presented the highest sweetening power, being 1033.59 times sweeter than sucrose, followed by sucralose/acesulfame‐K/neotame 5:3:0.1 (982.80), sucralose/steviol glycoside 2:1 (862.67), sucralose/acesulfame‐K 3:1 (847.45) and sucralose/thaumatin 1:0.6 (284.29). The sweeteners had a time–intensity sweetness profile similar to sucrose and a time–intensity bitterness profile different from sucrose but similar among themselves. In relation to sensory acceptance, a significant difference between the low‐sugar jam and the traditional jam was not observed.     

Comparison of the Hedonic General Labeled Magnitude Scale with the Hedonic 9‐Point Scale

The hedonic 9‐point scale was designed to compare palatability among different food items; however, it has also been used occasionally to compare individuals and groups. Such comparisons can be invalid because scale labels (for example, “like extremely”) can denote systematically different hedonic intensities across some groups. Addressing this problem, the hedonic general Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) frames affective experience in terms of the strongest imaginable liking/disliking of any kind, which can yield valid group comparisons of food palatability provided extreme hedonic experiences are unrelated to food. For each scale, 200 panelists rated affect for remembered food products (including favorite and least favorite foods) and sampled foods; they also sampled taste stimuli (quinine, sucrose, NaCl, citric acid) and rated their intensity. Finally, subjects identified experiences representing the endpoints of the hedonic gLMS. Both scales were similar in their ability to detect within‐subject hedonic differences across a range of food experiences, but group comparisons favored the hedonic gLMS. With the 9‐point scale, extreme labels were strongly associated with extremes in food affect. In contrast, gLMS data showed that scale extremes referenced nonfood experiences. Perceived taste intensity significantly influenced differences in food liking/disliking (for example, those experiencing the most intense tastes, called supertasters, showed more extreme liking and disliking for their favorite and least favorite foods). Scales like the hedonic gLMS are suitable for across‐group comparisons of food palatability.     

Low progesterone concentration during the development of the first follicular wave reduces pregnancy per insemination of lactating dairy cows

Objectives were to determine the effect of progesterone (P4) concentration on fertility of lactating dairy cows induced to ovulate follicles of the first follicular wave. Lactating dairy cows (n=989) at 38±3d postpartum were balanced by parity and body condition score and randomly assigned to 3 treatments: first follicular wave (FFW), first follicular wave with exogenous P4 (FFWP), or second follicular wave (SFW). All cows had their estrous cycle presynchronized with 2 injections of prostaglandin (PG) F(2α) given 14 d apart. Cows in the FFW and FFWP treatments started the ovulation synchronization protocol 3 d after the last PGF(2α) of the presynchronization protocol, whereas SFW cows received a GnRH injection (100 μg of gonadorelin diacetate; Cystorelin, Merial Ltd., Duluth, GA) 3 d after the last PGF(2α) of the presynchronization protocol and started the synchronization protocol 7 d later. The synchronization protocol consisted of GnRH on d -10, PGF(2α) on d -3, and GnRH concurrent with timed artificial insemination (AI) on d 0. Cows in the FFWP treatment received 2 controlled internal drug release inserts containing 1.38 g of P4 from d -8 to -3. Progesterone concentration was determined on d -10, -8, -6, -3, and 0 from all cows and at 7, 14, and 21 d after AI from a subsample of cows (n=170). Cows (n=715) had their ovaries scanned by ultrasound on d -10, -3, and 7 d. Pregnancy was diagnosed at 38 and 66 d after AI. Concentration of P4 from study d -8 to -3 was lowest for FFW cows (1.4±0.1 ng/mL) and similar between SFW (3.7±0.2 ng/mL) and FFWP (3.7±0.1 ng/mL) cows. Diameter of the dominant follicle on study d -3 was greater for FFW cows (16.5±0.3 mm) than for SFW cows (15.4±0.3 mm), but diameter of the dominant follicle of FFWP cows was not different (15.9±0.3 mm) compared with that of SFW and FFW cows. The incidence of multiple ovulation was largest for FFW cows (SFW=19.5, FFW=33.6, FFWP=19.0%), but pregnancy per AI (P/AI) at 66 d was smallest for FFW cows (SFW=38.9, FFW=22.3, FFWP=32.0%). Anovular cows in the SFW (19.4 vs. 42.8%) and FFWP (22.1 vs. 37.2%) treatments had reduced P/AI compared with cyclic cows, despite having similar or greater P4 concentration from study d -8 to -3, respectively. Estrus and ovulation synchronization protocols for lactating dairy cows must result in growth of ovulatory follicle under P4 concentration >2 ng/mL to ensure high P/AI.     

Is dietary intake associated with salt taste function and perception in adults? A systematic review

Salt is commonly used in food processing and as a flavour enhancer. Dietary salt intake often exceeds the recommended levels and high intake is associated with several health concerns such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer. A systematic review of the literature was conducted to examine if individuals’ salt taste function and perception is associated with dietary intake. Interventional studies were excluded in order to investigate the taste-diet relationships of free-living individuals. The systematic literature search was conducted in five electronic databases and twenty articles that reported on salt taste function and perception, as well as dietary intake, were identified and included. Of these, eleven studies measured salt taste sensitivity as detection and/or recognition thresholds, seven measured salt taste intensity, and twelve assessed hedonic ratings (preference or liking). Based on the studies included in this review, salt taste sensitivity and intensity ratings were poorly associated with dietary intake. Hedonic ratings, on the other hand, were relatively more predictive of dietary intake. Considerable variations in the methods used in salt taste and dietary intake assessment were noted, which may explain the lack of taste-diet associations or inconsistent findings between studies. Although definitive conclusions cannot be drawn, this review suggests that a simple tool that assesses salt taste hedonic ratings may be a useful strategy to identify individuals who consume high levels of salt in a clinical setting and subsequently inform the selection of strategies to improve dietary salt intake in these individuals. Future studies investigating taste-diet relationship should emphasise high quality methodology and adequate statistical power for robust outcomes.     

The effects of noise control in coffee tasting experiences

The present research investigates the general effect of auditory noise control in individual’s eating and drinking experiences. In particular, the study applied passive vs active commercial headphone noise control techniques to an urban drinking situation. Here, each participant drank twice the same coffee while exposed to a louder (~85 dBA) vs less loud (−20 dBs) version of the same background noise of a food court in busy hours. Note that by loud, louder, and less loud, we are referring to differences in the sound level of the noise.Results suggest that most consumers tend to be less sensitive to specific sensory and hedonic attributes of the coffee under louder noise (sweetness, bitterness, acidity, flavor/aroma intensity, flavor-liking, sound-liking, flavor-sound-matching), and less willing to pay and purchase the coffee, relative to less loud sounds. This was more evident concerning the perceived bitterness and aroma intensity of the coffee. The effects reported are mainly attributed to the differences in noise level during taste, and discussed based on theory on crossmodal correspondences, and attention (e.g., louder noise may diminish the ability to attend to specific elements of the experience). When thinking of public health, for example, these results suggest that differences in urban noise level may moderate behavior during food/drink situations (e.g., potentially modulating sugar intake).     

RELATIONSHIP OF NITROGEN-SULFUR FERTILIZATION AND HYBRID TO SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF shrunken2 SWEET CORN KERNELS

Sweet corn hybrids significantly affected the primary components of eating quality, i. e. sweetness (P < 0.001), sweet corn aroma (P = 0.004), crisp pericarp (P = 0.002) and tender endosperm (P = 0.020). To some degree, N-S fertilization had an influence on the sweetness of the kernerl (P = 0.067). Hybrids with high levels of kernel DMS and sucrose had more intense sweet corn aroma and sweetness, respectively, with a corresponding increase in sweet corn flavor. A positive relationship was also observed between sweet corn aroma and kernel DMS concentration. Although overall liking did not display significant differences between hybrids and was not correlated with any of the chemical components of flavor, it was positively related to aroma, sweetness and texture, and negatively related to grassiness and starchiness in the kernels. The results in this study demonstrated the importance of conducting sensory evaluation to understand the complex nature of the sensory quality in food crops.     

Effect of dietary sulfur and selenium concentrations on selenium balance of lactating Holstein cows

The effects of dietary sulfate and selenium concentrations on selenium balance in dairy cows were investigated. Midlactation Holstein cows (n = 30) were fed diets containing either 0.1 or 0.3 mg of supplemental Se (from sodium selenate)/kg of dry matter and 0, 0.2, or 0.4% added S from a mix of calcium and magnesium sulfate in a factorial arrangement. The experiment lasted 112 d. Dry matter intake was linearly reduced with increasing S, but the effect was greater when 0.3 mg/kg of Se was fed (significant interaction). Treatment effects for yields of milk, milk fat, and milk protein were similar to those for dry matter intake. Increased dietary S linearly reduced plasma Se concentrations. Increasing dietary S linearly reduced apparent (42.7, 33.1, and 30.1%) and estimated true (50.5, 46.0, and 42.3%) Se digestibility. Excretion of Se via feces (1.6 vs. 2.8 mg/d) and urine (0.5 vs. 1.3 mg/d) was higher and output in milk (0.4 vs. 0.3 mg/d) was lower for cows fed 0.3 mg/kg of Se compared with 0.1 mg/kg, but no Se effect was found for estimated true Se digestibility. Dietary S from sulfate reduced Se balance especially when cows were fed diets with less than 0.3 mg of Se/kg of diet dry matter.     

The role of acidity,sweetness, tannin and consumer knowledge on wine and food match perceptions

The purposes of this study were to (1) explore significant differences in perception of match for a variety of food and wine styles; (2) evaluate the impacts of wine sweetness level, wine acidity level, and wine tannin level on perception of match; and (3) investigate the impact of food and wine expertise on perceived level of match. The highest perceived wine matches for each food item were: Sauvignon Blanc and chêvre, Chardonnay and brie, Cabernet Sauvignon and spicy Italian salami, and Port and milk chocolate. Wine sweetness, acidity, and tannin levels all significantly impacted the level of match with certain food items. Food and wine expertise also significantly impacted the level of match, indicating differences between the more expert and novice participants in the role wine sweetness, acidity, and tannin had on level of match.     

Perception of Beer Flavour Associates with Thermal Taster Status

Beer flavour, and thus much of the consumer experience of beer, is determined by the sensations elicited when it is taken into the mouth. Thus, individual differences in the perception of these oral sensations may contribute to the variation in consumer behaviour. A new taste phenotype shown to associate with the intensity of oral sensations elicited by simple solutions is thermal taster status (TTS). Thermal tasters (TTs) perceive ‘phantom’ tastes with thermal stimulation of the tongue, while thermal non‐tasters (TnTs) do not. Here, we investigate the effect of TTS on the perceived intensity of bitterness, sourness, sweetness, fullness, carbonation and overall flavour intensity elicited by seven beers representing classic styles — wheat beer, brown ale, pale ale, low‐alcohol lager, standard lager, high‐alcohol lager and stout. A strong trend was observed for TTs (n = 20) to rate attributes higher than TnTs (n = 20) for all beers except the stout, with these differences significant in many instances (ANOVA or binomial analysis). It is concluded that TTS may be an important determinant of individual differences in the perception of beer flavour, but beer liking and preference are more complex phenomena than can be accounted for by this phenotype alone.