Numerical simulation of hydraulic fracturing and associated microseismicity using finite-discrete element method

Hydraulic fracturing （HF） technique has been extensively used for the exploitation of unconventional oiland gas reservoirs. HF enhances the connectivity of less permeable oil and gas-bearing rock formationsby fluid injection, which creates an interconnected fracture network and increases the hydrocarbonproduction. Meanwhile, microseismic （MS） monitoring is one of the most effective approaches to evaluatesuch stimulation process. In this paper, the combined finite-discrete element method （FDEM） isadopted to numerically simulate HF and associated MS. Several post-processing tools, includingfrequency-magnitude distribution （b-value）, fractal dimension （D-value）, and seismic events clustering,are utilized to interpret numerical results. A non-parametric clustering algorithm designed specificallyfor FDEM is used to reduce the mesh dependency and extract more realistic seismic information.Simulation results indicated that at the local scale, the HF process tends to propagate following the rockmass discontinuities; while at the reservoir scale, it tends to develop in the direction parallel to themaximum in-situ stress.
2014 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting byElsevier B.V. All rights reserved.     

Analysis of structural interaction in tunnels using the covergence–confinement approach

The rock-support interaction in tunnels is studied through the use of the convergence–confinement method. The equations that characterize the behaviour of the most important support types are given together with a set of conceptual interaction schemes. As far as the behaviour of the support is concerned, reference is made to the ultimate limit state concept, which is widely used in civil engineering. This approach is linked to the classical convergence–confinement method. The interaction between the temporary support system and the final lining is dealt with, and the noteworthy case of presupport ahead of the face, followed by a further internal support (usually steel sets and shotcrete) is also included. Finally, the ‘ground reaction curve of the reinforced tunnel’, which allows one to analyse the interaction between the reinforcement around the tunnel and supports, is introduced.     

Assessment of strain bursting in deep tunnelling by using the finite-discrete element method

Rockbursting in deep tunnelling is a complex phenomenon posing significant challenges both at the design and construction stages of an underground excavation within hard rock masses and under high in situ stresses. While local experience, field monitoring, and informed data-rich analysis are some of the tools commonly used to manage the hazards and the associated risks, advanced numerical techniques based on discontinuum modelling have also shown potential in assisting in the assessment of rockbursting. In this study, the hybrid finite-discrete element method (FDEM) is employed to investigate the failure and fracturing processes, and the mechanisms of energy storage and rapid release resulting in bursting, as well as to assess its utility as part of the design process of underground excavations. Following the calibration of the numerical model to simulate a deep excavation in a hard, massive rock mass, discrete fracture network (DFN) geometries are integrated into the model in order to examine the impact of rock structure on rockbursting under high in situ stresses. The obtained analysis results not only highlight the importance of explicitly simulating pre-existing joints within the model, as they affect the mobilised failure mechanisms and the intensity of strain bursting phenomena, but also show how the employed joint network geometry, the field stress conditions, and their interaction influence the extent and depth of the excavation induced damage. Furthermore, a rigorous analysis of the mass and velocity of the ejected rock blocks and comparison of the obtained data with well-established semi-empirical approaches demonstrate the potential of the method to provide realistic estimates of the kinetic energy released during bursting for determining the energy support demand.     

Prediction of blast-induced ground vibration using artificial neural network

An attempt has been made to evaluate and predict the blast-induced ground vibration and frequency by incorporating rock properties, blast design and explosive parameters using the artificial neural network (ANN) technique. A three-layer, feed-forward back-propagation neural network having 15 hidden neurons, 10 input parameters and two output parameters were trained using 154 experimental and monitored blast records from one of the major producing surface coal mines in India. Twenty new blast data sets were used for the validation and comparison of the peak particle velocity (PPV) and frequency by ANN and other predictors. To develop more confidence in the proposed method, same data sets have also been used for the prediction of PPV by commonly used vibration predictors as well as by multivariate regression analysis (MVRA). Results were compared based on correlation and mean absolute error (MAE) between monitored and predicted values of PPV and frequency.     

Numerical analysis of blast-induced wave propagation and spalling damage in a rock plate

The paper focuses on the numerical analysis of blast-induced stress wave propagation and related spalling damage in a rock plate or wall. Firstly, a large-scale contact explosion is simplified as a one-dimensional (1-D) strain problem, and a cross-format centered finite-difference scheme is presented. Secondly, the finite-difference code is used to explore the wave propagation in a rock plate, and compared with the commercial software LS-DYNA. Thirdly, a continuum damage constitutive model for rock is introduced and successfully incorporated into the LS-DYNA through its user-defined subroutine. Coupling with the erosion technique, the improved LS-DYNA is used to simulate the blast-induced spalling damage at the back-side of rock plate. Numerical results show that the 1-D finite difference code is convenient and accurate. Also, the user-defined subroutine can well describe the process of spalling damage.     

Infinite elements for numerical analysis of underground excavations

Infinite elements were developed to overcome an inherent limitation of the Finite Element Method. The technology of infinite elements has been refined to such an extent that the modeling of an unbounded medium is no longer a limitation of the Finite Element Method. This paper shows that the remaining problem associated with a non-uniform and non-zero far-field decay of any one of the problem variables can also be resolved without having to create nodes at infinity. A combined finite-infinite element analysis now matches the power of the Boundary Element Method in handling the unbounded analysis domains while retaining the versatility of the Finite Element Method.     

A strain-softening numerical model of core discing and damage

There has been a debate in the rock mechanics community regarding the mechanisms causing what is known as core discing. This phenomenon occurs when diamond drill cores are retrieved from rock masses in which high in situ stresses relative to rock strength are present. The interest in that phenomenon is to use it to estimate the in situ stresses from the shape and frequency of the failures along the core axis. In the present paper we argue that discing is only an indicator of high stresses, and that estimating in situ stresses from fracture observations is much too inaccurate.As most of the literature found on the subject has tackled the problem using elastic numerical models, it is shown that the stress distribution in the core being formed obtained from such models does not exist once failure has been reached. Numerical analyses using Flac^2D with an elasto-plastic cohesion softening friction hardening model show that for a given stress state, discing or core damage may involve tensile failure, a combination of shear and tensile failure, or only shear failure, depending on the stress state and ratio of tensile to shear strength of the rock. The numerical model used is validated by replicating core discing observed under controlled laboratory conditions. Parametric analyses involving changes in mesh density, deformability parameters, dilatancy, drill bit pressure, drilling fluid pressure and applied stress states are also performed. Finally, it is shown that drilling-induced core discing or damage store important residual stresses in the core which may explain why recovered core samples tend to show a deterioration of their mechanical properties with time.     

基于修正弹塑性损伤模型的钢筋混凝土高桥墩地震损伤分析

Faria-Oliver损伤本构模型是一种模型参数少、标定方便、计算效率较高的混凝土弹塑性损伤本构模型,但此模型对循环荷载作用下混凝土受拉行为的描述略有不足;针对此点提出了修正模型,并基于大型有限元软件ABAQUS编制了修正模型的用户材料子程序VUMAT,对钢筋混凝土高桥墩进行了地震损伤分析。分析结果表明:基于提出的修正Faria-Oliver损伤模型对高桥墩进行地震损伤分析,能有效识别高桥墩在地震作用下的典型损伤破坏过程。并进而发现高桥墩在地震作用下易发生多处损伤,且损伤位置以及损伤演化过程对地震动频谱特性具有敏感性的特点。     

爆炸荷载作用桥梁动力响应及损伤的数值模拟

采用大型通用有限元软件Ansys建立桥梁和炸药模型,使用LS-DYNA 3D模拟了不同爆炸距离和不同炸药量下桥梁的动态响应。获取关键部位节点的位移响应和Von-Mises等效应力时程曲线,并且模拟桥梁的局部损坏以及全桥的坍塌过程。引入Tuler-Butcher损伤模型,通过计算得出特定单元的损伤积累曲线。本文的研究方法和计算结果可为桥梁的状态评测和安全性监控提供重要的参考依据。     

Numerical analysis of surface subsidence in asymmetric parallel highway tunnels

Tunnelling related hazards are very common in the Himalayan terrain and a number of such instances have been reported. Several twin tunnels are being planned for transportation purposes which will require good understanding for prediction of tunnel deformation and surface settlement during the engineering life of the structure. The deformational behaviour, design of sequential excavation and support of any jointed rock mass are challenging during underground construction. We have raised several commonly assumed issues while performing stability analysis of underground opening at shallow depth. For this purpose, Kainchi-mod Nerchowck twin tunnels (Himachal Pradesh, India) are taken for in-depth analysis of the stability of two asymmetric tunnels to address the influence of topography, twin tunnel dimension and geometry. The host rock encountered during excavation is composed mainly of moderately to highly jointed grey sandstone, maroon sandstone and siltstones. In contrast to equidimensional tunnels where the maximum subsidence is observed vertically above the centreline of the tunnel, the result from the present study shows shifting of the maximum subsidence away from the tunnel centreline. The maximum subsidence of 0.99 mm is observed at 4.54 m left to the escape tunnel centreline whereas the maximum subsidence of 3.14 mm is observed at 8.89 m right to the main tunnel centreline. This shifting clearly indicates the influence of undulating topography and in-equidimensional noncircular tunnel.     

Empirical and numerical approach for optimisation of fire and mechanical performance in fire-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy composites

This paper involves the optimisation of fire, mechanical and fire/heat-induced degradation of mechanical properties of recently developed, novel, fibre-reinforced epoxy composite materials incorporating intumescent and cellulosic fibres as fire-retardant (FR) additives. A number of samples with different levels and relative ratios of two additives (FR cellulosic fibre and intumescent) has been prepared and tested for their fire performance using a cone calorimeter. Their mechanical performance in tensile and flexural modes have also been investigated. The experimental results have been used to construct surface plots and develop a numerical expression, which can relate to and predict levels and optimum ratios of additives present in the composite structure with their respective fire and mechanical behaviour.     

Analysis of the ventilation systems in the Dartford tunnels using a multi-scale modelling approach

The capabilities of the ventilation systems in the two road tunnels at Dartford (UK) are analysed using a multi-scale modelling approach. Both tunnels have complex semi-transverse ventilation systems with jet fans to control longitudinal flow. The construction and ventilation systems in the tunnels are described and the current emergency ventilation strategies are presented. The analysis includes a coupling of a 1D network model with 3D components, representing the operational jet fans, built using computational fluid dynamics. The jet fans were experimentally characterized on-site and the findings were compared to the model predictions. The predicted ventilation flows for each of the emergency ventilation strategies are presented and discussed. In cold-flow conditions, ventilation velocities significantly above 3 m/s can be generated throughout the tunnels. However, it is observed that 1/3 of the flow generated in the East tunnel is diverted from the tunnel up the extract shafts. The model was used to simulate various reduced fan combinations and thus the level of redundancy in each of the systems has been estimated. It is found that an acceptable level of ventilation may be produced in the West tunnel, even if several pairs of jet fans are disabled. In the East tunnel there is less redundancy, but an acceptable level of ventilation control can be maintained with one or two jet fans disabled.     

Modelling of geosynthetic-reinforced column-supported embankments using 2D full-width model and modified unit cell approach

Soil-cement deep mixing (DM) columns combined with geosynthetic basal reinforcement are an accepted technique in geotechnical engineering to construct road and railway embankments over soft foundations. Both full-width and unit cell models have been used to numerically simulate the performance of geosynthetic-reinforced and column-supported (GRCS) embankments. However, the typical unit cell model with horizontally fixed side boundaries cannot simulate the lateral spreading of the embankment fill and foundation soil. As a result, the calculated reinforcement tensile loads using typical unit cell models are much less than those from matching full-width models. The paper first examines GRCS embankments using a full-width model with small- and large-strain modes in FLAC and then compares the calculated results from the full-width model with those using a typical unit cell model, a recently proposed modified unit cell model, and a closed-form solution. The paper also examines the influence of the soft foundation soil modulus, reinforcement tensile stiffness, and DM column modulus on the reinforcement tensile loads. Numerical analyses show that the reinforcement tensile loads from the modified unit cell model are in good agreement with those from the full-width model for zones under the embankment crest for all cases and conditions examined in the paper. Both the full-width model and modified unit cell model perform better than the typical unit cell model for the prediction of the reinforcement tensile load when compared to the closed-form solution. However, while the modified unit cell developed by the writers is shown to be more accurate than the typical unit cell when predictions are compared to results using full-width numerical simulations, the benefit of using this approach to reduce computation times may be limited in practice.     

A numerical approach to unsteady behaviour of atmospheric pollutants from a point source

An atmospheric diffusion model for gaseous pollutants emitted from a continuous point source has been developed. Pollutants concentrations are obtained by solving numerically (implicit finite‐difference scheme) unsteady state one‐dimensional atmospheric transport‐diffusion equations. The surface dry deposition, gravitational settling and leakage of pollutants from the inversion layer are taken into account in the model.     

3D random Voronoi grain-based models for simulation of brittle rock damage and fabric-guided micro-fracturing

A grain-based distinct element model featuring three-dimensional （3D） Voronoi tessellations （randompoly-crystals） is proposed for simulation of crack damage development in brittle rocks. The grainboundaries in poly-crystal structure produced by Voronoi tessellations can represent flaws in intact rockand allow for numerical replication of crack damage progression through initiation and propagation ofmicro-fractures along grain boundaries. The Voronoi modelling scheme has been used widely in the pastfor brittle fracture simulation of rock materials. However the difficulty of generating 3D Voronoi modelshas limited its application to two-dimensional （2D） codes. The proposed approach is implemented inNeper, an open-source engine for generation of 3D Voronoi grains, to generate block geometry files thatcan be read directly into 3DEC. A series of Unconfined Compressive Strength （UCS） tests are simulated in3DEC to verify the proposed methodology for 3D simulation of brittle fractures and to investigate therelationship between each micro-parameter and the model＇s macro-response. The possibility of numericalreplication of the classical U-shape strength curve for anisotropic rocks is also investigated innumerical UCS tests by using complex-shaped （elongated） grains that are cemented to one another alongtheir adjoining sides. A micro-parameter calibration procedure is established for 3D Voronoi models foraccurate replication of the mechanical behaviour of isotropic and anisotropic （containing a fabric） rocks.
2014 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting byElsevier B.V. All rights reserved.     

Modified scaled distance regression analysis approach for prediction of blast-induced ground vibration in multi-hole blasting

The blast-induced ground vibration prediction using scaled distance regression analysis is one of the most popular methods employed by engineers for many decades. It uses the maximum charge per delay and distance of monitoring as the major factors for predicting the peak particle velocity (PPV). It is established that the PPV is caused by the maximum charge per delay which varies with the distance of monitoring and site geology. While conducting a production blasting, the waves induced by blasting of different holes interfere destructively with each other, which may result in higher PPV than the predicted value with scaled distance regression analysis. This phenomenon of interference/superimposition of waves is not considered while using scaled distance regression analysis. In this paper, an attempt has been made to compare the predicted values of blast-induced ground vibration using multi-hole trial blasting with single-hole blasting in an opencast coal mine under the same geological condition. Further, the modified prediction equation for the multi-hole trial blasting was obtained using single-hole regression analysis. The error between predicted and actual values of multi-hole blast-induced ground vibration was found to be reduced by 8.5%.     

Assessment of Tc-99 monitoring within the western Irish Sea using a numerical model

Water circulation patterns and associated material transport within a highly dynamic system such as the Irish Sea are complex phenomena. Although Tc-99 monitoring programme undertaken by the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland provides a good insight to the material distribution on the east coast of Ireland, transport patterns within the Irish Sea have not been fully explored. In this study a validated transport model was used to hindcast transport of Tc-99 discharged from the Sellafield plant to determine extents of Tc-99 migration within the Irish Sea and reassess transit times to east coast of Ireland. Transit times are also estimated within a context of changes in meteorological conditions and fluctuations in discharges. Additionally, seasonal and inter-annual circulation patterns were examined.Relationships between discharge times and timing of far field concentrations are highly variable and are dependant on sea dynamics controlling the accumulation and removal of Tc-99 mass. Transport towards the Irish east coast, and consequently transit times, vary intra- and inter-annually, and depend on the prevailing hydrodynamic conditions resulting from meteorological conditions. The transit times from Sellafield to Balbriggan fall within the wide range of 30-240 days; with summer releases resulting in the shortest transit times. The model also indicated a strong relationship between summer concentration peaks on the east coast of Ireland and the strength of the Western Irish Gyre. Sudden increases of Tc-99 concentrations at Balbriggan coincide with peak of sea surface temperatures when the gyre is strongest and when advection is fastest.The adequacy of the current radionuclide monitoring programme within the western Irish Sea is evaluated, and recommendations are made for the development of a more optimised monitoring programme.     

On anisotropic continuous damage of plates in Flexure

Internal damage due to fissuration results in an overall anisotropic material behaviour. A scalar damage parameter does not allow one to model a direction dependent response of continuously damaging solids. Employing the idea that the scalar damage parameter can be associated with an appropriate strain a damage tensor related to strains is introduced. The overall elastic properties are determined using a simplified form of the sensor function representations and the stress-strain relations regarding the overall response are given. For combined stress states an uncoupled damage theory is derived for materials with no lateral deformability under axial stress. Both brittle-ductile and elastic-brittle cases are studied using circular plates, for the elastic-brittle case only the governing differential equation are presented.