Seafood Phospholipids: Extraction Efficiency and Phosphorous Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (31P NMR) Profiles

The absolute concentration of phospholipids (PL) (μmol g^?1, wet tissue) in five marine tissues was determined using quantitative phosphorous nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (³¹P NMR). Hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) roe was identified as a “high‐PL” seafood, containing 15.97 ± 4.72 μmol g^?1 (wet tissue) of these compounds. This was 2–4× higher than the concentration of PL in monkfish (Lophius spp.) fillets (4.26 ± 1.52), arrow squid (Nototodarus sloanii) mantle (8.95 ± 0.89), Greenshell? mussel (Perna canaliculus) (7.04 ± 0.87), or hoki liver (6.03 ± 0.76). The amount of PL extracted from these tissues was dependent on the extraction method used, with the Folch (1957) method consistently extracting more oil (and more PL) from all five tissues than the Bligh and Dyer (1959) and Jensen (2003) methods. The individual PL profiles of each tissue are also reported.     

Hsa-Let-7g miRNA Targets Caspase-3 and Inhibits the Apoptosis Induced by ox-LDL in Endothelial Cells

It has been well confirmed ox-LDL plays key roles in the development of atherosclerosis via binding to LOX-1 and inducing apoptosis in vascular endothelial cells. Recent studies have shown ox-LDL can suppress microRNA has-let-7g, which in turn inhibits the ox-LDL induced apoptosis. However, details need to be uncovered. To determine the anti-atherosclerosis effect of microRNA has-let-7g, and to evaluate the possibility of CASP3 as an anti-atherosclerotic drug target by has-let-7g, the present study determined the role of hsa-let-7g miRNA in ox-LDL induced apoptosis in the vascular endothelial cells. We found that miRNA has-let-7g was suppressed during the ox-LDL-induced apoptosis in EAhy926 endothelial cells. In addition, overexpression of has-let-7g negatively regulated apoptosis in the endothelial cells by targeting caspase-3 expression. Therefore, miRNA let-7g may play important role in endothelial apoptosis and atherosclerosis.     

Susceptibility to peroxidation of the major mycelial lipids of Cunninghamella echinulata

The distribution of hydroperoxides among lipid fractions (namely neutral lipids, glycolipids, sphingolipids, and phospholipids) of the oleaginous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata was studied during the growth cycle. The lipid hydroperoxide content of total lipids increased during growth. Neutral lipids contained a small amount of hydroperoxides (0.78×10^–4–5×10^–4 µmol/mg), glycolipids plus sphingolipids contained large amounts of hydroperoxides (14×10^–4–17.6×10^–4 µmol/mg), while the hydroperoxide content of phospholipids increased greatly during growth (from 4.6×10^–4 to 38×10^–4 µmol/mg). In addition, the distribution of lipid hydroperoxides among the major phospholipid classes indicated that the neutral phospholipids, namely phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine, were more susceptible to peroxidation than the anionic ones (i.e. phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylserine). A novel parameter, namely “specific lipid peroxidizability”, which is able to evaluate the susceptibility to peroxidation (peroxidizability) of each lipid fraction/class due to the nature of the lipid itself, was introduced. By using this parameter it was found that peroxidizability depended on the nature of the individual lipid rather than on its polyunsaturated fatty acid content.     

The Different Protective Effects of Phospholipids Against Obesity-Induced Renal Injury Mainly Associate with Fatty Acid Composition

The objectives of the study are to investigate the protective effects of eight phospholipids (PL) with different fatty acids or polar head groups on obesity-induced renal damage. Four kinds of phosphatidylcholine (PC) are exacted from egg york (Egg-PC), soybean (Soy-PC), squid roe (DHA-PC) and sea cucumber (EPA-PC). Furthermore, four kinds of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) are enzymatically synthesized from PC, respectively. Male C57BL/6J mice are fed with standard diet, high-fat diet (Model) or high-fat diet containing 2% phospholipids for 8 weeks. Mice in the model group demonstrate severe renal injury. Different phospholipids improve renal dysfunction in high-fat diet mice to varying degrees, and EPA-PE shows the best effects on reducing serum Cr, chronic inflammation and renal lipid accumulation. A further mechanistic study reveals that the lipid-lower effect of phospholipids might be attributed to increased fatty acid β-oxidation and decreased fatty acid synthesis. Finally, it seemed that the influence of phospholipids on the PGC1α activation appear to be dependent on FA saturation, as DHA/EPA-PL increases the expression of PGC1α greater than Soy-PL, as well as Egg-PL. Practical Applications:Based on these findings, phospholipids are promising supplement for alleviation of obesity-induced renal dysfunction, and their different protective effects mainly due to the fatty acids composition.     

Analyses of lipids and fatty acids in ripe roes of some Northwest European marine fish

Lipid class analyses and fatty acid analyses of neutral and polar lipids were carried out on ripe roes of herring, cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, sand eel and capelin. Total lipid was 10–26% of roe dry weight. The species with the highest total lipid, sand eel and capelin, also had the highest percentage of neutral lipid in total lipid, 77% and 49% respectively. In the other species, phospholipids accounted for 62–77% of roe total lipid. Both the neutral lipids, and especially the phospholipids, of all species were very unsaturated because of high concentrations of (n−3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), frequently amounting to 50% of the total egg lipid. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) had similar fatty acid compositions in all species, with an average ratio (n−3)/(n−6) of ca. 20∶1. Phosphatidylinositol (PI) consistently had high concentrations of 18∶0 and 20∶4 (n−6) with an average ratio of (n−3)/(n−6) of 1.8∶1. Requirements for high levels of (n−3) PUFA in the embryonic and early larval development stages of marine fish are suggested as is a special role for the 20∶4(n−6) in PI.     

Functional Gelatin-Carbon Nanotubes Nanohybrids With Enhanced Antibacterial Activity

Hybrid materials with enhanced antibacterial activity were prepared by incorporation of carbon nanotubes within gelatin-fluoroquinolones bioconjugates. Gelatin bioconjugates were characterized by UV-Vis, FT-IR, and calorimetric analyses, nanohybrids by morphological analyses. Biocompatibility was evaluated on human mesenchymal stem cells, and antibacterial performance against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. Minimun inhibitory concentrations from 0.025 to 0.05 µg mL^?1 and from 0.025 to 0.10 µg mL^?1, and MBC from 0.025 to 0.10 µg mL^?1 and from 0.05 to 0.20 µg mL^?1 were detected for Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, respectively, showing that nanotubes increase antimicrobial activity comparing to both free and gelatin-conjugated drugs.     

Non-Mouse Models of Atherosclerosis: Approaches to Exploring the Translational Potential of New Therapies

Cardiovascular disease is the largest single cause of disease-related mortality worldwide and the major underlying pathology is atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis develops as a complex process of vascular lipid deposition and retention by modified proteoglycans, endothelial dysfunction and unresolved chronic inflammation. There are a multitude of current therapeutic agents, most based on lowering plasma lipid levels, but, overall, they have a lower than optimum level of efficacy and many deaths continue to arise from cardiovascular disease world-wide. To identify and evaluate potential novel cardiovascular drugs, suitable animal models that reproduce human atherosclerosis with a high degree of fidelity are required as essential pre-clinical research tools. Commonly used animal models of atherosclerosis include mice (ApoE^−/−, LDLR^−/− mice and others), rabbits (WHHL rabbits and others), rats, pigs, hamster, zebrafish and non-human primates. Models based on various wild-type and genetically modified mice have been extensively reviewed but mice may not always be appropriate. Thus, here, we provide an overview of the advantages and shortcomings of various non-mouse animal models of atherosclerotic plaque formation, and plaque rupture, as well as commonly used interventional strategies. Taken together, the combinatorial selection of suitable animal models readily facilitates reproducible and rigorous translational research in discovering and validating novel anti-atherosclerotic drugs.     

Free Fatty Acids Reduction in Waste Cooking Oil by Rhodosporidium toruloides and Simultaneous Carotenoids,Lipids, and PAL Enzyme Production in a Two-Phase Culture System

Waste cooking oil (WCO) is a problematic waste product that contains free fatty acids (FFAs), preventing it from being valorized easily as biodiesel and poses an environmental hazard if incorrectly disposed. The use of WCO as a carbon source for Rhodosporidium toruloides (R. toruloides) using a two-phase culture system is developed. The normal growth of R. toruloides when cultured in WCO (OD₆₀₀ 52) reveals its ability to use a hydrophobic substrate as the carbon source compared to glucose (OD₆₀₀ 51.9). Interestingly, the extracellular lipase activity when R. toruloides is grown on WCO is 14.4 U mL⁻¹ compared to when grown on glucose (2.4 U mL⁻¹). Additionally, FFA levels in WCO are reduced from 2% to 0.2% at end of fermentation, suggesting that R. toruloides can consume FFA. Furthermore, higher yield of beneficial products: β-carotene (4.57 µg mL⁻¹), torularhodin (4.2 µg mL⁻¹), fatty acids (1 mg mL⁻¹), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme (0.12 µmol mg⁻¹) are produced when WCO is the carbon source, compared to glucose (4.1 µg mL⁻¹ β-carotene, 3.0 µg mL⁻¹ torularhodin, 1 mg mL⁻¹ of fatty acids, and 0.096 µmol mg⁻¹ PAL enzyme). This is a first study that shows R. toruloides can grow on hydrophobic carbon source.     

Effects of long-term feeding of marine oils with different positional distribution of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on lipid metabolism, eicosanoid production, and platelet aggregation in hypercholesterolemic rats

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were distributed mainly in the sn-1,3 positions of seal oil triglyceride and in the sn-2 position of squid oil triglyceride. Seal oil-rich or squid oil-rich fats having constant saturated/monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and n−6/n−3 PUFA ratios were fed to exogenously hypercholesterolemic rats for 160 d. The control fat contained linoleic acid as the sole PUFA. Before starting the experimental diets, rats were orally treated with high doses of vitamin D for 4 d to accelerate atherogenesis. The percentage of arachidonic acid in phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine of liver, platelets, and aorta was lower in the marine oil groups than in the control group, seal oil being more effective than squid oil. Maximal platelet aggregation induced by collagen was significantly lower both marine oil groups. Platelet thromboxane (TX) A₂ production induced by collagen or thrombin was markedly reduced by feeding seal or squid oils, the reduction being more pronounced in the seal oil than in the squid oil group. Aortic prostacyclin (PGI₂) production was the same among the three groups. The ratio of the productions of aortic PGI₂ and platelet TXA₂ was significantly higher in the seal oil than in the control group. Although there was no difference in intimal thickness among the three groups, the aortic cholesterol content was significantly lower in the marine oil groups than in the control group. These results showed that the main effects in rats of the different intramolecular distributions of EPA and DHA in dietary fats were on arachidonic acid content in tissue phospholipids and on platelet TXA₂ production.     

Chitin characterization by SEM,FTIR, XRD,and 13C cross polarization/mass angle spinning NMR

The full characterization of chitin obtained from squid, shrimp, prawn, lobsters, and king crab is reported. Elemental analysis, including metals such as Ca, Mg, Zn, Cd, Hg, Cr, Mn, Cu, and Pb, was performed, which is quite relevant because the skeleton composition is slightly different for each species. The morphology was studied by means of TEM and their compositions were determined by energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis. ¹³C cross polarization/magic angle spinning NMR was applied to determine the chemical shift of all the carbons and the difference between them. Chitin was isolated by using chemical methods, alternating hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. The α‐chitin from shrimp, prawn, lobsters, and king crabs showed two signals at 73.7 and 75.6 ppm. Meanwhile, the β‐chitin from squid exhibited one signal at 75.2 ppm. FTIR studies were used to analyze α‐chitin from shrimp and β‐chitin from squid. The α‐chitin exhibited amide I vibration modes at 1660 and 1627 cm^?1, whereas the β‐chitin showed one band at 1656 cm^?1. X‐ray diffraction showed that α‐chitin is orthorhombic (a = 4.74 Å, b = 18.86 Å, and c = 10.32 Å) and β‐chitin had a monoclinic dihydrated form (a = 4.80 Å, b = 10.40 Å, c = 11.10 Å, and β = 97°). © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 1876–1885, 2004     

Salimyxins and Enhygrolides: Antibiotic,Sponge‐Related Metabolites from the Obligate Marine Myxobacterium Enhygromyxa salina

Unlike their terrestrial counterparts, marine myxobacteria are hardly investigated for their secondary metabolites. This study describes three new compounds ( 1 – 3 ), named salimyxins and enhygrolides, obtained from the obligate marine myxobacterium Enhygromyxa salina. These are the first natural products obtained from Enhygromyxa species. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis, including NMR and CD spectroscopy. Enhygrolides are closely related to the nostoclides, which were initially isolated from a cyanobacterium of the genus Nostoc. The salimyxins, representing structurally most unusual degraded sterols, are close to identical to demethylincisterol from the sponge Homaxinella sp. Salimyxin B and enhygrolide A inhibit the growth of the Gram‐positive bacterium Arthrobacter cristallopoietes (MIC salimyxin B, 8 μg mL^?1; enhygrolide A, 4 μg mL^?1).     

Comparison of two methods for extraction of volatiles from marine PL emulsions

The dynamic headspace (DHS) thermal desorption principle using Tenax GR tube, as well as the solid phase micro‐extraction (SPME) tool with carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane 50/30 µm CAR/PDMS SPME fiber, both coupled to GC/MS were implemented for the isolation and identification of both lipid and Strecker derived volatiles in marine phospholipids (PL) emulsions. Comparison of volatile extraction efficiency was made between the methods. For marine PL emulsions with a highly complex composition of volatiles headspace, a fiber saturation problem was encountered when using CAR/PDMS‐SPME for volatiles analysis. However, the CAR/PDMS‐SPME technique was efficient for lipid oxidation analysis in emulsions of less complex headspace. The SPME method extracted volatiles of lower molecular weights more efficient than the DHS method. On the other hand, DHS Tenax GR appeared to be more efficient in extracting volatiles of higher molecular weights and it provided a broader volatile spectrum for marine PL emulsion than the CAR/PDMS‐SPME method.     

Effect of Extraction Method on the Yield and Quality of Mullet Roe Oil

Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) roe is used for the production of high nutritional and added-value delicacies. Its lipid fraction is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and bioactive compounds. This study examines scalable oil extraction methods for mullet roe oil extraction. Namely, solvent extraction (SE) using ethanol in two different temperatures, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO₂-ethanol mixture (SFE-E) in two different temperatures, expeller oil press (EP) extraction, expeller oil press combined with ethanol extraction (EP-SE) and wet reduction (WR) are examined. The methods are evaluated with regard to the oil yield and recovery, the oil oxidation and the composition in fatty acids, and polar compounds and unsaponifiable matter. EP-SE and SE provide the highest oil recovery for tested extraction temperatures (76% and 65% respectively), followed by SFE-E (46%) and EP (36%). Extracted oils present high PUFA content (28.5–33.9%). The type of extraction process and the process variables affect oil oxidation as well as the concentration of polar compounds and unsaponifiable matter. In terms of oxidation levels, 85% of the extracted oil samples were within the limits set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The potential of the examined methods for industrial mullet roe oil production is discussed. Practical applications : Oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids was extracted from stripped mullet roe. The work proposes several scalable extraction methods using mild conditions which could be applied to obtain edible and high nutritional value mullet roe oil with high recovery reaching up to 76%. The same methods could be employed also for mullet roe by-products. The obtained results improve the knowledge regarding the potential of roe valorization for oil extraction as well as the effect of the extraction method on the oil yield, main composition features and the quality characteristics of oil extracted by mullet roe. This research could offer new opportunities for the food industry for fish roe valorization for high nutritional quality oil production.     

Impact of Phosphoethanolamine Reverse Micelles on Lipid Oxidation in Bulk Oils

Phospholipids are important minor components in edible oil that play a role in lipid oxidation. Surface active phospholipids have an intermediate hydrophilic–lipophilic balance value, which allows them to form association colloids such as reverse micelles in bulk oil. These association colloids can influence lipid oxidation since they create lipid–water interfaces where prooxidants and antioxidants can interact with triacylglycerols. In this study, we examined the formation of reverse micelles in a stripped oil system by dioleoyl phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) and the effect of these physical structures on lipid oxidation kinetics. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of DOPE was approximately 200 µmol/kg oil at 45 °C. Oxidation kinetics studies showed that DOPE was prooxidative when it was above its CMC (400 and 1,000 µM), reducing the lag phase from 14 days (control) to 8 days. The addition of combinations of DOPE and dioleoyl phosphocholine (DOPC) resulted in formation of mixed micelles with a CMC of 80 µmol/kg oil at 45 °C. These mixed micelles were also prooxidative when concentrations (100 and 500 µM) were above the CMC, decreasing the lag phase from 14 to 8 days. These findings provide a better understanding of the role of phospholipids in lipid oxidation of edible oil and could contribute to better antioxidant solutions.     

Variation in Properties of Chitosan Prepared at Different Alkali Concentrations from Squid Pen and Shrimp Shell

Chitin from squid pen (Loligo sp.) and kiddi shrimp shell (Parapenaeopsis stylifera) were treated at room temperature (30 ± 2°C) with four different concentrations of sodium hydroxide: 20, 30, 40, and 50% w/w. With 50% sodium hydroxide solution, within 108 h, the chitin from squid pen was deacetylated to give chitosan. But it required 126 h at 40% and 144 h at 30% concentration of sodium hydroxide. In the case of chitin from Parapenaeopsis stylifera, complete deacetylation took place after 120 h and 168 h at 50 and 40% concentrations of sodium hydroxide, respectively. But shrimp shell on treatment with 20 and 30% sodium hydroxide solutions and squid pen kept at 20% sodium hydroxide were not sufficiently deacetylated even after 480 h. Properties like degree of deacetylation, viscosity and molecular weight of the prepared chitosan samples were studied. Minimum alkali concentration required for the formation of chitosan at room temperature was found to be 30% for squid chitin and 40% for shrimp chitin. With the increase in the time of deacetylation, decreases in molecular weight and viscosity were observed in chitosan from both sources. Maximum viscosity was recorded by chitosan prepared from squid pen using 30% sodium hydroxide solution at room temperature.     

Dihydroaustrasulfone Alcohol (WA-25) Impedes Macrophage Foam Cell Formation by Regulating the Transforming Growth Factor-β1 Pathway

Atherosclerosis is considered an inflammatory disease. However, clinically used anti-atherosclerotic drugs, such as simvastatin, have many side effects. Recently, several unique marine compounds have been isolated that possess a variety of bioactivities. In a previous study, we found a synthetic precursor of the marine compound (austrasulfone), which is dihydroaustrasulfone alcohol (WA-25), has anti-atherosclerotic effects in vivo. However, the detailed mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, to clarify the mechanisms through which WA-25 exerts anti-atherosclerotic activity, we used RAW 264.7 macrophages as an in vitro model to evaluate the effects of WA-25. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, WA-25 significantly inhibited expression of the pro-inflammatory proteins, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). In contrast, simvastatin increased the COX-2 expression compared to WA-25. In addition, WA-25 impedes foam cell formation and up-regulated the lysosomal and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling pathway. We also observed that transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) was up-regulated by WA-25 and simvastatin in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells, and the promising anti-atherosclerosis effects of WA-25 were disrupted by blockade of TGF-β1 signaling. Besides, WA-25 might act through increasing lipolysis than through alteration of lipid export. Taken together, these data demonstrate that WA-25 may have potential as an anti-atherosclerotic drug with anti-inflammatory effects.     

Lipid peroxidation in low density lipoproteins from human plasma and egg yolk promotes accumulation of 1-acyl analogues of platelet-activating factor-like lipids

Oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein (LDL) is known to be a key event for induction of atherosclerosis. However, there has been little progress in structural elucidation of oxidized lipids, especially oxidatively fragmented phospholipids retaining a glycerol backbone. In this study, we found that LDL derived from egg yolk has no platelet-activating factor (PAF) acetylhydrolase activity, and that prolonged incubation of egg yolk LDL with Cu²⁺ resulted in the formation of various PAF-like lipids: 1-acyl type phosphatidylcholines with ansn-2-short-chain dicarboxylate or monocarboxylate group. Only a very small amount of the PAF-like lipid having ansn-2-short-chain monocarboxylate group was detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in Cu²⁺-oxidized LDL from human plasma with high PAF-acetylhydrolase activity, which has been reported to hydrolyze PAF-like lipids to lysophosphatidylcholines. Preincubation of plasma LDL with diisopropyl fluorophosphate dose-dependently inhibited PAF-acetylhydrolase activity, resulting in accumulation of the PAF-like lipids when the LDL was oxidized with Cu²⁺. As well as PAF and lysophosphatidylcholines, several PAF-like lipids were found to inhibit [³H]thymidine incorporation into cultured vascular smooth muscle cells derived from rat aorta. The possible formation of PAF-like lipids by lipid peroxidation in LDL is discussed as well as its possible significance for induction of atherosclerosis.     

Therapy of myeloma in vivo using marine phospholipid in combination with Agaricus blazei Murill as an immune respond activator

Mushroom (Agaricus blazei Murill) extract has been reported to possess antitumor effects through immune activation. Here, we investigated the beneficial effects of combining A. blazei extract with marine phospholipids in comparison to A. blazei extract alone on myeloma sp2 tumor suppression when orally administrated. The experimental groups designed for sp2 tumor bearing BALB/c nu/nu mice were drinks of: (1)control; (2)1.0 mg/mL squid phospholipid liposome alone; (3)0.5 mg/mL A. blazei Murill water extract alone; (4)1.0 mg/mL squid phospholipid liposome with 0.5 mg/mL A. blazei Murill water extract in the form of those simple mixture; and (5)1.0 mg/mL squid phospholipid liposome with 0.5 mg/mL A. blazei Murill water extract partially encapsulated. Orally administrated volumes amounted to approximately 5 mL per day per mouse for all groups. A. blazei Murill water extract alone and squid phospholipid alone served groups show moderate tumor suppression with total administrations of approximately 105 mg/mouse for squid phospholipid through out the experimental term. When both A. blazei Murill water extract and squid phospholipid were administrated simultaneously in a simple mixture form, promotional effect on cancer tumor suppression was observed. And when A. blazei Murill water extract was partially encapsulated in the squid phospholipid liposomes with total administrations being 105 mg/mouse for squid phospholipid, effect on cancer tumor suppression was more pronounced. Though there was no statistically significant difference in tumor sizes between the simple mixture form administrated group i.e. group (4) and the partially encapsulated form administrated group i.e. group (5), the tumor vanished mouse was seen in the partially encapsulated form administrated group. Thus it was concluded that combinational administration of the A. blazei Murill water extract and the marine phospholipid may be useful in myeloma sp2 therapy.     

Glycolipids improve lutein bioavailability and accumulation in eyes in mice

Intestinal carotenoid absorption is greatly affected by dietary factors. In this study, it was hypothesized that lipids with varying functional groups may influence differentially lutein bioavailability. Hence, the influence of glyco‐, phospho‐, neutral, crude (mixture of lipids) lipids, or mixed micelles (control) on the percent lutein micellarization in vitro and its postprandial plasma, liver, and eye response in mice were investigated. Results show that the percent micellarization of lutein with crude lipids and glycolipids were higher (91.4 and 45.7%) than control, while no significant difference was found between phospho‐ and neutral lipids. The mean plasma response of lutein was higher for crude‐ (6 times), glyco‐ (3 times), phospho‐ (2.7 times), and neutral (2 times) lipid than control (12.4 ± 1.18 nmol/mL 8 h^?1) group. Lutein levels (pmol/g) in liver were higher in crude (7.4 ± 1) and phospho‐ (3.6 ± 0.8) lipid groups while in eyes it was higher in glyco‐ (54.0) and neutral (21.2) lipid groups than control. The influential effect of glyco‐ and phospholipids may be due to smaller micellar size (glyco‐upto 3.43 µm, phospho‐ upto 5.78 µm) than the neutral lipids (upto 66 µm). Ingestion of lutein with glycolipid or phospholipids may improve lutein bioavailability. Practical applications: The findings of the present study will be useful in nutritional and biomedical applications for feeding lutein with specific lipid combinations to achieve enhanced lutein absorption. Specifically, feeding diet/emulsion with lutein and glyco‐ and phospholipid combination may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, owing to the influential effect of these lipids on intestinal absorption of lutein.     

Application of Saponin for Cholesterol Removal from Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Lipid

The removal of cholesterol from lipid obtained from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) cephalothorax using saponin in conjunction with celite under various conditions is investigated. Various lipid:saponin ratios (1:2, 1:4, and 1:6, W/W) with different lipid:solvent ratios (1:20, 1:40, and 1:80, W/V) are employed with a treatment time of 4 h. The highest cholesterol removal (88.77 ± 0.18%) is obtained with a lipid:saponin ratio of 1:6 and 20 volumes of 50% ethanol. As the treatment time is increased from 1 to 4 h, higher cholesterol removal is achieved. Lipid peroxides and conjugated dienes are higher in the lipid after cholesterol removal compared to untreated lipid, while thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, the ρ‐anisidine value and free fatty acids are reduced. However, the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content in the saponin‐treated lipid (18.06 ± 0.37 g/100 g^?1) is higher than that of untreated lipid (15.80 ± 0.17 g/100 g^?1). FTIR spectra confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides, with lower aldehyde, phospholipid and free fatty acid contents in the cholesterol‐removed lipid. The process developed employing saponin is able to produce crude shrimp lipid with a pronounced decrease in cholesterol, but augmented PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Practical Applications: Shrimp lipid is a vital byproduct capable of extraction from cephalothorax. Due to the presence of astaxanthin, EPA and DHA, shrimp lipid is considered to be a highly useful nutraceutical product. However, the cholesterol content of shrimp lipid is a major constraint on its human consumption. The negative impact of cholesterol content can be overcome by lowering the cholesterol content. Saponin treatment of shrimp lipid is able to reduce the cholesterol level and increase the PUFA, thus solving the high cholesterol problem and also gaining augmented health benefits.