Influence of age on practice effects in longitudinal neurocognitive change.

Objective: Longitudinal comparisons of neurocognitive functioning often reveal stability or age-related increases in performance among adults under about 60 years of age. Because nearly monotonic declines with increasing age are typically evident in cross-sectional comparisons, there is a discrepancy in the inferred age trends based on the two types of comparisons. The current research investigated the role of practice effects in longitudinal comparisons on the discrepancy. Method: Longitudinal data over an average interval of 2.5 years were available on five abilities (i.e., reasoning, spatial visualization, episodic memory, perceptual speed, vocabulary) in a sample of 1,616 adults ranging from 18 to over 80 years of age. Practice effects were estimated from comparisons of the performance of people of the same age tested for either the first or second time, after adjusting for the possibility of selective attrition. Results: Increased age was associated with significantly more negative longitudinal changes with each ability. All of the estimated practice effects were positive, but they varied in magnitude across neurocognitive abilities and as a function of age. After adjusting for practice effects the longitudinal changes were less positive at younger ages and slightly less negative at older ages. Conclusions: It was concluded that some, but not all, of the discrepancy between cross-sectional and longitudinal age trends in neurocognitive functioning is attributable to practice effects positively biasing the longitudinal trends. These results suggest that the neurobiological substrates of neurocognitive functioning may change across different periods in adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implications of within-person variability in cognitive and neuropsychological functioning for the interpretation of change.

Samples of adults across a wide age range performed a battery of 16 cognitive tests in 3 sessions within an interval of approximately 2 weeks. Estimates of within-person variability across the 3 assessments were relatively large and were equivalent in magnitude to the cross-sectional age differences expected over an interval of 15-25 years. These findings raise questions about the precision of assessments based on a single measurement and imply that it may be difficult to distinguish true change from short-term fluctuation. Because there were large individual differences in the magnitude of this variability, it is proposed that change might be most meaningfully expressed in units of each individual's own across-session variability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive decline in old age: Separating retest effects from the effects of growing older.

Repeated administration of cognitive tests improves test performance, making it difficult for researchers to gauge the true extent of age-related cognitive decline. The authors examined this issue using data from the Rush Religious Orders Study and linear mixed-effects models. At annual intervals for up to 8 years, more than 800 older Catholic clergy members completed the same set of 19 cognitive tests from which previously established composite measures of cognitive domains were derived. Retest effects on some measures were substantial and continued to accumulate even after 8 annual test readministrations, but effects on other measures were minimal. Across cognitive measures, retest effects were not related to age, sex, or education. Individual differences in retest effects were substantial but not consistent across cognitive measures. The results suggest that retest-based improvement in cognitive test performance can be substantial and persistent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related practice effects across longitudinal neuropsychological assessments in older people with schizophrenia.

Objective: The relationship between aging and practice effects on longitudinal neuropsychological assessments was investigated in middle-aged and older people with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Method: Older people with schizophrenia (n = 107; M age = 56.1) and age-comparable nonpsychiatric controls (n = 107; M age = 57.7) were scheduled to receive annual assessments on a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests for an average of 2.5 years (range 11 months to 4 years). Mixed-model analyses were used to separately examine the effects of practice and age on test performance. Results: Number of prior assessments (practice) was associated with significant performance improvement across assessments, whereas older age was associated with significant decline in performance. The groups did not differ significantly in extent of age-related cognitive decline, but a three-way interaction among group, age, and practice was found, such that greater age-related decline in practice effects were found for older people with schizophrenia relative to nonpsychiatric participants. Conclusions: This study did not find any evidence of neurodegenerative age-related decline in neuropsychological abilities in middle-aged and older people with schizophrenia, but older age was associated with diminished ability to benefit from repeated exposure to cognitive tasks in people with schizophrenia. Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia may combine with cognitive decline associated with normal aging to reduce practice effects in older patients. These findings have important implications for the design of studies examining the longitudinal trajectory of cognitive functioning across the life span of people with schizophrenia, as well as clinical trials that attempt to demonstrate cognitive enhancement in these individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dynamic investigation of cognitive dedifferentiation with control for retest: Evidence from the Swiss Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study on the Oldest Old.

Empirical examinations of the hypothesis of dedifferentiation of cognitive abilities in old and very old age (a) do not account for possible retest effects, which consequently may yield biased estimates of age effects, and (b) focus on time-independent relations (e.g., number of latent constructs, correlations between latent or measured variables). The authors applied a structural equation model with statistical control for retest effects to investigate the dynamic relations between a marker of perceptual speed (cross out) and a marker of verbal fluency (category-fruits). Longitudinal data are from 5 waves of the Swiss Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study on the Oldest Old (N = 377, baseline age range = 79.5- 84.5 years). The authors found that, independently of retest effects, performance on the cross-out task affected changes in performance on the category task while the opposite did not hold true. This analytical technique could be applied to various markers of broad fluid-mechanic and broad crystallized-pragmatic components of cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intraindividual change and variability in daily stress processes: Findings from two measurement-burst diary studies.

There is little longitudinal information on aging-related changes in emotional responses to negative events. In the present article, we examined intraindividual change and variability in the within-person coupling of daily stress and negative affect using data from 2 measurement-burst daily diary studies. Three main findings emerged. First, average reactivity to daily stress increased longitudinally, and this increase was evident across most of the adult lifespan. Second, individual differences in emotional reactivity to daily stress exhibited long-term temporal stability, but this stability was greatest in midlife and decreased in old age. Third, reactivity to daily stress varied reliably within-persons (across-time), with individuals exhibiting higher levels of reactivity during times when reporting high levels of global subject stress in the previous month. Taken together, the present results emphasize the importance of modeling dynamic psychosocial and aging processes that operate across different time scales for understanding age-related changes in daily stress processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality change over 40 years of adulthood: Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of two longitudinal samples.

Normative personality change over 40 years was shown in 2 longitudinal cohorts with hierarchical linear modeling of California Psychological Inventory data obtained at multiple times between ages 21-75. Although themes of change and the paucity of differences attributable to gender and cohort largely supported findings of multiethnic cross-sectional samples, the authors also found much quadratic change and much individual variability. The form of quadratic change supported predictions about the influence of period of life and social climate as factors in change over the adult years: Scores on Dominance and Independence peaked in the middle age of both cohorts, and scores on Responsibility were lowest during peak years of the culture of individualism. The idea that personality change is most pronounced before age 30 and then reaches a plateau received no support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assimilation and contrast effects in reactions to communication and attitude change.

"The relationship between the attitude of the recipient and the position advocated in a communication was studied under conditions where a communicator not known to subject presents a point of view on a controversial issue which differs from that of subject by varying amounts." The topic discussed was prohibition of alcohol. The Ss came from a dry state where this was a lively issue. It was suggested that "the relative distance between subject's own attitude and communication along with subject's latitudes of acceptance and rejection for various stands on the issue may provide a basis for predicting reactions to communication and susceptibility to change." 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Scaling of visuospatial attention undergoes differential longitudinal change as a function of APOE genotype prior to old age: Results from the NIMH BIOCARD Study.

The effect of apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype on longitudinal cognitive decline in midlife was investigated with attentional scaling. Healthy individuals (mean age 59.6 years) genotyped for APOE were tested at 3 12-month intervals on a cued visual search task. A random effects model revealed significant interaction in effect of precue size on search speed between APOE-ε4 gene dose and assessment, with longitudinal increases in noncarriers and heterozygotes but longitudinal decreases in homozygotes. Association of APOE-ε4 with cognitive decline in midlife is consistent with an Alzheimer's disease (AD) prodrome, albeit a decade or more before average age of AD diagnosis. However, cognitive decline in midlife associated with a gene modulating neuronal response to insult argues that the concept of an AD prodrome includes factors that allow as well as cause AD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of age on object exploration, habituation, and response to spatial and nonspatial change.

To measure their ability to detect novel arrangements in a given environment, young (6 months old) and senescent (22-24 months old) male F344 rats were repeatedly exposed to a given spatial configuration of objects contained in an open field. After the rats were habituated to the novel environment (1 trial with no objects, followed by 3 trials with 5 salient objects), the spatial arrangement of the objects was modified (2 trials), and object novelty was tested (2 trials) by substituting a familiar object with a new one at the same location (nonspatial change). The results indicated that the senescent rats explored old objects less than young rats, particularly on Trial 2. On the 1st trial with displaced objects (Trial 5), the senescent rats explored the displaced objects less than the young rats. However, when a new object was placed in the field (Trials 7-8), there were no age differences in new object exploration. These results Suggest that senescent rats have decrements in the ability to build spatial representations of the environment and to use this information to detect such changes, even though object recognition is not impaired with age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analyzing true change in longitudinal multitrait-multimethod studies: Application of a multimethod change model to depression and anxiety in children.

The authors show how structural equation modeling can be applied to analyze change in longitudinal multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) studies. For this purpose, an extension of latent difference models (McArdle, 1988; Steyer, Eid, & Schwenkmezger, 1997) to multiple constructs and multiple methods is presented. The model allows investigators to separate true change from measurement error and to analyze change simultaneously for different methods. The authors also show how Campbell and Fiske’s (1959) guidelines for analyzing convergent and discriminant validity can be applied to the measurement of latent change. The practical application of the multimethod change model is illustrated in a reanalysis of child depression and anxiety scores (N = 906 American children) that were assessed by self- and parent reports on three measurement occasions. The analyses revealed that (a) the convergent validity of change was low for both constructs and (b) sex was a significant predictor of self-reported, but not of parent reported, anxiety states. Finally, the authors discuss advantages and limitations and compare the model with other approaches for analyzing longitudinal MTMM data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual search for change in older adults.

Previous research has demonstrated that younger adults are surprisingly poor at detecting substantial changes to visual scenes. Little is known, however, about age differences in this phenomenon. In the 2 experiments reported here, older adults were slower than younger adults in detecting changes to simple visual stimuli. This age difference was beyond what would be expected given known age-related changes in processing speed. Examination of eye movement behavior during the search for change suggested that age-related changes in the useful field of view and degree of cautiousness play a significant role. Speed of processing and 3 age-related eye movement behaviors explained 85% of the variance in change detection latency, eliminating the effect of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preventive effects of Lamaze training for first-time parents: A short-term longitudinal study.

Evaluated whether Lamaze Childbirth Preparation prevents negative effects on the marital relationship typically experienced by 1st-time parents. 39 couples who participated in Lamaze training and 37 couples who did not completed questionnaires 3 mo before birth, 1 wk after birth, and 9–20 wks after birth. Results indicate that the Lamaze group reported approximately the same levels of marital satisfaction, state anxiety, and birth-related problems, whereas the non-Lamaze couples showed sharp decreases in marital satisfaction and increases in anxiety and postbirth problems. The potential preventive value of Lamaze training for couples is discussed. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling longitudinal change in the language abilities of children with autism: Parent behaviors and child characteristics as predictors of change.

The objective of the current study was to evaluate the patterns of longitudinal change in the language abilities of 28 children with autism during early and middle childhood. Results from fitting a series of multilevel models showed that children's rate of language growth was independently predicted by (a) children's responsiveness to others' bids for joint attention and (b) parents' responsiveness to their children's attention and activity during play. Both predictive relations could not be explained by initial variation in global developmental characteristics, such as IQ, mental age, or language abilities. These findings support a social?pragmatic view on language acquisition, which emphasizes the collaborative process through which children and their parents negotiate shared meaning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term correlated change in personality traits in old age.

The present study examines long-term correlated change in personality traits in old age across a time period of 12 years. Data from the Interdisciplinary Study on Adult Development were used to investigate different aspects of personality change and stability. The sample consisted of 300 adults ranging from 60 to 64 years of age at Time 1. Personality was measured with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Longitudinal structural stability, differential stability, change in interindividual differences, mean-level change, and correlated change of the 5 personality traits were examined utilizing structural equation modeling. After having established strict measurement invariance, factor variances in Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness were found to be different across testing occasions, implying variant covariation patterns over time. Stability coefficients were around .70, indicating high but not perfect differential stability. The amount of interindividual differences increased with respect to Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness. Both mean-level change and stability in personality were observed. Eventually, except for Neuroticism, a number of medium effect-sized correlations among changes in personality traits emerged, implying that personality changes share a substantial amount of commonality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-perceptions of aging predict mortality and change with approaching death: 16-year longitudinal results from the Berlin Aging Study.

Satisfaction with one’s own aging and feeling young are indicators of positive well-being in late life. Using 16-year longitudinal data from participants of the Berlin Aging Study (P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer, 1999; N = 439; 70- to 100-year-olds), the authors examined whether and how these self-perceptions of aging change with age and how such changes relate to distance from death. Extending previous studies, they found that it is not only higher aging satisfaction and younger subjective age but also more favorable change patterns (e.g., less decline in aging satisfaction) that are uniquely associated with lower mortality hazards. These effects are robust after controls for objective measures such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, diagnosis of dementia, or number of illnesses. As individuals approach death, they become less satisfied with their aging and report feeling older. For aging satisfaction, mortality-related decline is much steeper than age-related decline, whereas change in subjective age is best characterized as an age-related process. The authors discuss how self-perceptions of aging are embedded in mechanisms underlying pathways of dying late in life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Word-frequency and phonological-neighborhood effects on verbal short-term memory.

Immediate memory span and maximal articulation rate were assessed for word sets differing in frequency, word-neighborhood size, and average word-neighborhood frequency. Memory span was greater for high- than low-frequency words, greater for words from large than small phonological neighborhoods, and greater for words from high- than low-frequency phonological neighborhoods. Maximal articulation rate was also facilitated by word frequency, phonological-neighborhood size, and neighborhood frequency. In a final study all 3 lexical variables were found to influence the recall outcome for individual words. These effects of phonological-word neighborhood on memory performance suggest that phonological information in long-term memory plays an active role in recall in short-term-memory tasks, and they present a challenge to current theories of short-term memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practice effects on the Minnesota Vocational Test for Clerical Workers.

A sample comprising 65 male and 32 female college students were given the test on three closely-spaced occasions. For both men and women the inter-trial differences were all significant at better than the .001 level, for both the Numbers and Names scores. The centile ranks of the mean scores (on norms for employed clerical workers) increased from below 50 on the first occasion to 72-91 on the last trial. With equal amounts of practice, a constant sex difference in favor of women is noted, but with three trials men can practically equal the original performance by women. It is suggested that alternate forms might overcome the practice effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Genetic and environmental effects on daily life stressors: More evidence for greater variation in later life.

People vary in the occurrence and perceived severity of stressors experienced in their daily lives. In the current study, the authors examined the extent to which individual differences in these relatively minor occurrences are determined by genetic endowment as well as environmental influences and how these effects vary by age. Identical (npairs = 111) and fraternal (npairs = 99) twin adults ranging from 25 to 73 years old reported the occurrence and severity of their daily stressors on 8 consecutive evenings. Both genetic and unique environmental effects accounted for the variance in stressor occurrence, whereas shared family and unique environmental effects accounted for the variance in the perceived severity of these stressors. In addition, the influence of unique environment on perceived stress exerted a stronger influence among the older adults than the younger adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A general model for the study of developmental problems.

Various research designs employed in developmental psychology for the investigation of maturational and aging effects are examined. Discrepancies and contradictions in the conclusions derived from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are consequences of the violation of assumptions implicit in these research designs. The conventional methods are shown to be special cases of a general model for research on behavior change over time. The properties of the general model are explicated and the assumptions for the customary designs are reviewed in the light of these properties. The complete model requires consideration of the components of age, time and cohort differences in the identification of developmental change. Both the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods in this context require strong assumptions which can rarely be met. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)