Key concepts in a framework for analysing visual landscape character

A transparent and theory-based scheme for analysing visual character is presented. Based on a literature review, nine key visual concepts are identified: stewardship, coherence, disturbance, historicity, visual scale, imageability, complexity, naturalness and ephemera. The nine visual concepts are presented in a framework of four levels of abstraction, described through the concepts' visual dimensions, landscape attributes contributing to the concepts and potential visual indicators suggested for mapping and quantifying the concepts. Each of these concepts focuses on different aspects of the landscape important for visual quality, where visual quality is an holistic experience of them all. The visual concepts presented are used to describe different characteristics of visual landscapes, rather than presenting a normative value for visual quality. It is believed that this framework can be important for landscape assessment and the compilation of landscape character.     

Capturing Landscape Visual Character Using Indicators: Touching Base with Landscape Aesthetic Theory

This paper presents one way that landscape visual character can be captured using indicators derived from nine theory-based concepts related to landscape perception. The paper aims to establish links between landscape aesthetic theory and visual indicators, thus exploring what landscape indicators are really indicating. The steps from abstract visual concepts to measurable visual indicators are described, and links are made to theories of landscape preferences and perception. The focus of the paper is on the application of indicators, including a presentation of the possible data sources of the presented indicators. The paper includes a discussion on the selection of appropriate landscape indicators through a suggested filtering process. The relationships between the concepts and the ability of visual indicators to capture changes in landscape character and other issues related to interpretation are discussed.     

The assessment of visual quality as a tool for the conservation of rural landscape diversity

The visual components of a landscape not only represent an aesthetic value but also testify to the interrelation of cultural, economic and biological phenomena. In fact it is often possible to find a relation between the beauty of landscape and its richness in terms of bio-ecological factors. Though it is not always easy to apply techniques for the assessment of landscape visual quality, this quality can be reasonably considered as a resource which has to be preserved in order to protect rural landscape diversity. The paper describes the drawing up and the application of a new and operative technique for the assessment of landscape quality of a rural area between the city of Milan and the Ticino river. This technique derives from previous British and American experiences, which have been adapted to the Italian context (in terms of landscape character, survey techniques and available databases); it is based on the identification of landscape units by field survey and photo-interpretation of aerial photographs and on the preparation of a scale of landscape values (this is done by interviewing a sample of people who gave numerical assessment to photographs of typical landscape units of the area). Finally five classes of different landscape quality values were found and a landscape evaluation map for the area was drawn up. The five landscape classes differ in relief, vegetation, density of built-up areas, size of cultivated fields and presence of character elements such as hedgerows, small woods, canals, lines of poplars or willows.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

Landscape Visual Aesthetics Measurement,Assessment, and Improvement of Street Pedestrian Spaces in Mountainous Cities—Case Study on the Historic Downtown of Jinan,Shandong Province

Urban streets support citizens’ daily commuting and social and recreational activities. Streetscape is also a visual resource and an important part of urban landscape appearance. Serving as an important ecological base and natural components of urban spatial structure, mountains often determine a city’s spatial layout and landscape identity so as to promote mountaincity integration. The study focuses on the historic downtown of Jinan, a typical mountainous city, analyzes the landscape aesthetic visual characteristics of street pedestrian spaces, and measures their landscape visual aesthetic quality by using panoramic images; the research then evaluates the visibility of high-visual-aesthetic-quality urban mountainous landscape to urban streets; finally, based on the overall landscape visual aesthetic quality evaluation results of urban street pedestrian spaces, the paper proposes a series of optimization suggestions of the streets at different levels to improve the harmony with urban mountain landscapes. The study hopes to provide a reference for the creation of mountain–city-integrated urban landscapes, as well as the healthy and sustainable urban development.     

Systems,habitats or places: evaluating the potential role of landscape character assessment in operationalising the ecosystem approach

A key challenge for research and practice is to understand how the ecosystem approach can be rolled out in spatial planning, management and decision-making. Any framework used to apply the ecosystem approach needs to not only be environmentally coherent but also socially meaningful. Drawing on semi-structured interviews and case studies, this paper examines the potential role of one place-based approach, landscape character assessment, as a medium to ensure socio-ecological relevance in operationalising the ecosystem approach. Our findings show that although place-based approaches have value as frameworks for distilling the ecosystem approach into a manageable form, their ecological relevance is a subject of debate. However, the potential relationship between landscape character, function and ecosystem services presented a powerful pathway for operationalising the ecosystem approach. The ecosystem approach may, in turn, complement landscape character assessment by providing a framework for exploring the functional dimension of landscape condition.     

Analysing Visual Landscape Complexity: Theory and Application

The experience of landscape has, through the development of the European Landscape Convention, been highlighted as an important aspect to be incorporated in the management and planning of future landscapes. Complexity is a concept that appears in the development of indicators for several landscape functions, including visual quality and biodiversity. In environmental psychology, complexity has been used as an explanatory factor for landscape preference. This paper outlines the factors which constitute the dimensions of complexity perception and how these relate to coherence—a factor which seems to interact with complexity as regards to landscape experience. The paper further explores how indicators of landscape complexity developed within the framework of landscape ecology may be applied and used to capture relevant information on visually experienced landscape complexity. Particular attention is paid to the dimensional transitions which must be considered in order for map based indicators and perceived environmental qualities to be readily related in an applied setting. The paper concludes with some suggested models for how to link landscape indicators with landscape preference in future research.     

威海城市高层建筑控制研究

针对高层建筑开发给威海传统景观风貌带来的影响,借助于视觉安全格局途径,建立维护视觉感知过程的关键格局,甄别城市景观风貌保护的"底线"。从城市的天际线保护和视觉通廊保护两个方面,建立建筑高度的刚性控制框架以指导城市高层建筑的发展。     

Rebuilding Networks of Forest Habitats in Lowland England

The concept of landscape urbanism favours an open-ended approach to landscape design. It questions the use of traditional methods of teaching design, which have, it argues, led to fixed landscape architectural solutions. A student project was developed, whose aim was to assess the educational value of such an approach to fieldwork within this theoretical debate. It used an open-ended, randomised and dynamic method to understand existing conditions and speculate about future landscapes. The quality of the educational experience and outcome was investigated using questionnaire and SWOT analysis. The fieldwork method chosen was based on the concepts of erasure, origination, transformation and migration. Findings showed that the randomisation of sites visited enabled a different set of analytical constructs to be established, which might otherwise have remained obscured by traditional preconceptions about the landscape. However, some students found the vocabulary of erasure, origination, transformation and migration (EOTM) to be confusing, repetitive and overlapping. They also had difficulty in recognising that the processes of EOTM can occur simultaneously. Whilst they linked the method with some visual explorations, it proved more difficult to relate to the vocabulary and methods of conventional landscape character analysis. The study concluded that the method was applicable at a landscape planning scale and in a variety of development scenarios. It also proved successful in engendering active group discussion and engagement, which could provide a model for real life consultation. However, to be fully effective, process led and student-centred methods of teaching design should be used earlier in students' development in the design studio and related to other ways of understanding landscape.     

基于风景旷奥理论的视觉感受模型研究——以城市湿地公园为例

风景旷奥理论属于风景分析评价的基础理论。以城市湿地公园为例,基于旷奥理论,将湿地景观分解组成旷奥感受评价的客观视觉特征与主观视觉感受两个部分评价,并加入自然对于视觉感受部分的评价,对三个部分进行不同维度的总结归纳,建立了一套视觉感受的湿地视觉景观评价体系。以此评价体系建立实验,利用SPSS数据分析最终确立湿地客观视觉特征与主观视觉感受间的关系,对诸视觉感受维度进一步深化,最终构建出旷奥理论下的视觉感受模型,用以指导城市湿地公园的景观实践建设。     

Visual threshold carrying capacity (VTCC) in urban landscape management: A case study of Seoul, Korea

The deterioration of the landscape in downtown Seoul has resulted mainly from the cumulative effects of large-scale developments. This article presents the Visual Threshold Carrying Capacity (VTCC) approach for maintaining and enhancing the landscape quality of the area. VTCC can be generally defined as the visual standard by which the value and significance of landscapes can be maintained. Using GIS and computer graphics techniques, VTCCs in this study are analyzed in two main respects: (1) the visibility of landscape resources, and (2) street scale. Subsequently, areas for intensive landscape management can be identified based upon the VTCCs established. The VTCC approach presented in this article integrates visual considerations with the process of developmental decision-making and thereby establishes a visually sound framework for the formulation of development proposals. Further research however, should be conducted to test the transferability and applicability of this approach to other urban landscapes and their related problems.     

西方建筑类型学和城市形态学：整合与应用

本文系统介绍西方建筑类型学和城市形态学的概念、发展历程和近年来新的学术探索。综合形态与类型学的研究的方法强调利用地图与规划图分析城市历史变化过程和理解城市结构及其构成规律。全面与确切的类型和形态研究是城市景观管理和旧城更新规划和设计实践的重要基础。通过讨论近年来国内建筑类型学和城市形态学研究极其存在的问题,本文重点讨论跨文化的综合形态与类型的研究方法对城市设计研究的意义。     

成都双流航空港区域第五立面规划探讨

城市第五立面指从空中俯瞰到的城市整体意象,即是城市形态、色彩、肌理、建筑屋顶等要素构成的整体环境。城市第五立面设计的最终目标是要形成可识别性和整体性都较强的城市景观风貌。从空中视角俯瞰成都双流航空港地区,发现其存在景观缺乏特色、机场建设与城市发展不和谐等问题。其第五立面设计运用视线分析法,在规划区域内构建“一心一环四片九节点”的结构,通过视点景观规划、节点规划和夜景规划,力图打造地标性大地门户景观,建设具有成都地方特色的国际大型航空港景观带。     

Ecological Landscape Planning: A gaming approach in education

An understanding of the complex problems of land-use competition requires an appreciation of natural processes, cultural values, economic imperatives and political agendas. This integrated understanding is an important component of the study programme for higher education students seeking a professional qualification in landscape architecture. A repertoire of game templates is introduced as an initial step in formulating a conceptual framework for the curriculum/games designer to explore the potential of play in ecological landscape planning. The concepts of social action space, permissible action space and motivational action space are used to investigate the qualities of each template for further game design development. The abstraction of these concepts may assist the designer to move beyond the usability of games into viewing their value as a learning method.     

Ecological Landscape Planning: a gaming approach in education

An understanding of the complex problems of land-use competition requires an appreciation of natural processes, cultural values, economic imperatives and political agendas. This integrated understanding is an important component of the study programme for higher education students seeking a professional qualification in landscape architecture. A repertoire of game templates is introduced as an initial step in formulating a conceptual framework for the curriculum/games designer to explore the potential of play in ecological landscape planning. The concepts of social action space, permissible action space and motivational action space are used to investigate the qualities of each template for further game design development. The abstraction of these concepts may assist the designer to move beyond the usability of games into viewing their value as a learning method.     

从小菊新品的特性试论其在奥运会期间的园林应用策略

菊花原产我国,在中国园林中具有举足轻重的历史地位。小菊类花朵繁密,观赏性好,抗旱、抗寒性强,在园林应用中的范围越来越广泛。在多年从事小菊新品种选育的基础上,从最新选育的小菊新品系的特性入手,结合中国园林的特色,提出其在奥运期间最佳的园林应用策略,以便使小菊的风采和中国的园林风格相得益彰;同时利于奥运会期间更好地展示我国园林绿化水平,体现中国的民族特色,发扬中国的民族精神。     

The semiotics of landscape design communication: towards a critical visual research approach in landscape architecture

In landscape architecture, visual representations are the primary means of communication between stakeholders in design processes. Despite the reliance on visual representations, little critical research has been undertaken by landscape architects on how visual communication forms work or their socio-political implications. In this theoretical paper, we argue that such research is of great importance. We explain how concepts of visual and critical social theory such as visual semiotics, simulacra and simulation, and power/knowledge can be used to critically reflect on landscape architectural representations. We further propose to study these representations at different stages of meaning-making by using visual methodologies such as visual discourse analysis, iconographical content analysis and social semiotic analysis. We conclude that these research approaches have the potential to explain issues such as dominant power structures, miscommunication between participants, and visual path-dependencies during landscape design processes.     

Overlooking the visual

It is widely acknowledged in literature on design theory and confirmed as part of the research project 'Cognitive abilities and the art of design' that in order to design, not only is it necessary to be visually aware, but also that visual thinking is an important part of the design process. But do we know why? One of the findings of the research project is that what visual awareness or visual thinking entails is far from clear. How these concepts relate to each other and to similar notions such as visual literacy, the visual language or visual skill, visualisation or imaging remains ambiguous. What is clear is that whenever 'the visual' is referred to in design theory, what is being invoked in one way or another is a mode of thinking closely associated with creativity, subjectivity and intuition. A metaphysical concept, this is deeply problematic educationally. How students might be taught any skills associated with the visual, or indeed, whether or not it is possible to teach anything visual is debatable.

The thesis of this paper is that difficulties surrounding the concept are philosophical, rather than psychological or cognitive. After introducing the main concerns of pragmatism, the paper considers various interconnected and related interpretations of the visual. It outlines problems these interpretations cause in the design studio and explores the philosophical foundations of the concept. To clarify its role in design, the paper offers an alternative analysis of the visual from a pragmatic perspective. Shifting paradigms to dispense with the need to rely on the notion of different modes of thinking, provides a basis not only to give a definition of visual skill which has a clear educational rationale, but also to make explicit the role of visual skill in the design process and to throw light on the apparently elusive connection between design theory and practice. The overall ambition of this research is to make it easier to teach and develop artistic sensibility in design. This paper is based on a conference paper presented at the ECLAS (European Conference of Landscape Architecture Schools) conference in Berlin in September 1999.

It emerges from the research project 'Cognitive abilities and the art of design' funded by the Leverhulme Trust, an investigation of the philosophy and practice of design education within landscape architecture. This involved interviewing eminent practitioners and educators in landscape architecture, both in the United States and Europe, analysis of questionnaires undertaken by students of landscape architecture and drawings undertaken by children and students from a range of disciplines. It draws on several years' experience teaching landscape design studios at undergraduate and postgraduate level. (A book developing this research is to be published shortly by Routledge.)