Developments in Health-Related Quality Standards for Chemicals in Drinking Water

Small differences in water quality standards can mean huge differences in costs for water treatment; difficulties which are compounded by standards for which the derivation is unclear, such as the EC drinking water Directive. Such situations give no indication of the margin of safety for a parameter or the significance to consumers of exceedances. The WHO Guidelines are being revised and will be presented so that the precise derivation of the numbers is absolutely clear. The scientific and quasi-scientific considerations can be separated and the user given the appropriate information to adapt the guidelines to particular circumstances. In deriving standards for toxicological data the factors incorporated reflect uncertainties in the data and extrapolation from animals to man. Understanding the mechanisms of toxicity or carcinogenicity can reduce the uncertainty and improve the quality of the standard, often allowing higher figures to be used with confidence that public health will not be comprised.     

The control of organics in drinking water in Canada and the United States (standards,legislation and practice)

Both the United States and Canada have a federal form of government, but approaches used in the two countries to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies differ. The Environmental Protection Agency currently enforces regulations for 10 organic chemicals (including 6 pesticides) under the Safe Drinking Water Act and provides advice on others through its health advisory program. Canada, however, does not have similar legislation, but rather provides health-related guidelines for 21 organic chemicals (including 16 pesticides) which are used by the provincial agencies responsible for drinking water supplies. Both countries are in the process of revising their standards and will include a variety of additional synthetic organic chemicals.Where possible, standards are set using a calculated acceptable daily intake usually derived from animal feeding experiments. Procedures for setting standards for carcinogens involve a blend of risk estimation coupled with consideration of the feasibility of reducing the risk in light of socio-economic factors. Most drinking water treatment plans in North America utilize ‘conventional’ treatment. Some now employ modifications in order to minimize trihalomethane formation. A few use aeration or granular activated carbon to remove synthetic organic chemicals.     

Regulation and guidelines for enhanced natural radiation in the United States

This paper discusses radiation protection guidelines and standards in the United States for enhanced natural radiation levels. Although no national standards have been developed in the United States, there have been standards and guidelines developed for individual situations throughout the country. These apply to uranium mill sites and land in their vicinity, phosphate lands, land contaminated by radium processing, hazardous waste sites, and related situations.The rationale for these recommendations and standards is discussed along with the health implications and other important factors. The applicability of these recommendations and standards to other situations is also discussed. Finally, the recommendations and standards developed by EPA are compared generally to recommendations and standards of other U.S. organizations.     

MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUNICIPAL WATER TREATMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES: PART II

The remarkable progress made in the early 20th century in improving the microbiological quality of municipal drinking water supplies is undoubtedly one of the most important factors contributing to the improved health and life expectancy of the developed world during that century. The paper highlights perceived milestones in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the scientific and technological developments in municipal water treatment practice, particularly in relation to the improvements in the chemical and biological quality of drinking water supplies. The paper concludes by summarizing key developments in the methods of measuring water quality and in the improvements in drinking water quality standards during that period.     

Standards, Costs and Benefits: An International Perspective

This paper considers the development of standards for the discharge of wastewaters from the perspectives of (a) the developed world, (b) the developing world, and (c) the newly industrializing nations. It considers the potential environmental benefits which can be obtained by the imposition of stringent effluent standards, and weighs this against the economic costs of meeting such standards. By means of case studies it considers how inappropriate standards can often arise in other countries of the world and how the imposition of unjustifiably high standards can be demoralizing, costly, and produce no environmental improvements. Finally, it considers how a more pragmatic approach to the setting of standards, especially in the newly industrializing and developing nations, place them in context of applicability, affordability, regulation and enforcement.     

Risikoorientierte Bewilligung von Erdw?rmesonden

The number of borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) is continuously rising in Europe. Just like other energy producing technologies, there are risks associated with BHE systems. Therefore, guidelines are necessary for regulating the construction and operation of such installations. In order to be able to trade-off the expected benefits against possible risks, knowledge about the local hydrogeological conditions, and the processes taking place, is required. Using the geothermal energy use concept developed for Canton Basel-Landschaft as an example, it is shown how the approval of BHE systems can be regulated in a differentiated way, and how the geological characteristics of a region can be integrated into a geothermal energy use concept. In particular, karst areas, areas with the risk of ground swelling and subrosion, water protection areas, and areas with multiple or confined aquifers are considered. The article aims at making a contribution to the present societal discussion about the benefits and risks of shallow geothermal energy systems by describing the risks associated with BHEs, and by presenting options to account for these risks in approval practice.     

Cyanobacterial toxins: an emerging threat in South African irrigation water

The deterioration of water quality is a serious concern for a water scarce‐country like South Africa (SA). This article looks at the risks posed by the common practice of using surface waters to irrigate crops, as these are usually contaminated with harmful cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins which can be bio‐accumulated by plants. In addition to cyanotoxins, SA waters are also heavily impacted by other pollutants such as toxic metals, salts and high electrical conductivity. The consumption of food contaminated with cyanotoxins is a growing human health concern for countries like SA which are faced with surface water eutrophication‐related challenges. The country also lacks research on human exposure to cyanotoxins via irrigated crops and regulations to manage cyanotoxins in irrigation water. Such lack of data and policies thus prompts an urgent need for local evidence‐based research to guide policies and guidelines on cyanotoxins in irrigation water, food plants and water used for livestock.     

Observed energy savings from appliance efficiency standards

No country has directly measured the actual energy savings resulting from efficiency standards, but many studies—mostly in North America—have indirectly observed savings. Methodological and practical obstacles to observing savings include the difficulty of defining baseline energy use and isolating the impact of technical improvements in efficiency from other changes in usage patterns. Laboratory measurements are cheaper and faster than field measurements, but they still must be calibrated to field use. Energy savings resulting from refrigerator efficiency improvements have been the most closely examined. Savings have been observed through laboratory comparisons, field measurements, and utility bill analysis. Actual savings correspond closely to those predicted in laboratory tests. Reductions in energy use from improvements in efficiency have also been observed for both heating and cooling equipment. Laboratory-measured differences in efficiency generally give accurate estimates of percentage savings, but give poor estimates of absolute savings. Energy savings from efficiency improvements have also been observed for freezers, water heaters, and showerheads. The generally large percentage savings observed in North America may also apply to Europe and Japan although the absolute savings will be smaller. Savings from new standards created in these countries must be verified.     

School Site Selection in the Inner-City: An Evaluation of Planning Standards

Abstract

City planners constantly seek to establish ground rules for the practice of their profession. Over the years, they have developed many sets of guidelines or standards to minimize the role of intuition. This search for structure is not simply a planners' identity crisis. The attempts to establish standards have deeper roots; they stem from a desire to rationalize the process of planning. Using the example of standards for school site selection in Philadelphia's inner-city area, this article answers two questions: can standards aid planners toward rational decision-making; and how much should planners analyze and challenge the premises which are given as the basis for their decisions? The article then suggests possible ways to increase the effectiveness of planners in the area of public facilities location in general, and school site selection in particular.

Finally, it discusses the functions which standards should perform and the way they can be defined operationally. The use of standards for evaluation of sites is not sufficient in itself, however; it is only part of a more general analysis of alternative solutions. Procedural steps for such an analysis are outlined.     

Requirements and applicable standards for design, manufacturing and installation of flexible pipes

A review is given of guidelines and standards for design and operation of high pressure flexible pipes used as pipelines, risers and pipeline/flowline tie-ins, etc. The main emphasis is given to the Veritec Guidelines for Flexible Pipes¹, which are also compared with other standards and regulations for flexible pipes. The final part of the paper discusses possible future Code development to achieve flexible pipe designs having a more consistent safety level with respect to various products, applications, etc.     

Development of a Decision Support System for Drought Management within North West Water

Whilst droughts, by their nature, are not frequently occurring events, it is essential, for prudent management of water-resources systems, to have analytical tools available for the effective management of the risks to water supplies when such events do occur.
Within North West Water Limited, modelling techniques have been developed and applied over a number of years, which allow water-supply managers to be provided with information concerning risks to supply within the Company's water-resources systems.
The paper describes how these modelling techniques have been integrated within a decision support system for drought management. Two different approaches have been used. Firstly, enhancement by the implementation of a user-friendly interface and, secondly, the development of a knowledge-based system. The problems and benefits of each approach are discussed.     

采用中国标准设计海外项目中消防接口的选择

为践行国家“一带一路”倡议,越来越多企业参与海外项目建设,中国标准在海外项目建设中的采用也愈加广泛。通过近些年参与的海外项目,发现海外项目的消防设计采用美国标准和英国标准较多。如果海外项目采用中国标准设计消防接口,存在消火栓、水泵接合器、消防水带的接口与现有消防车等消防设备接口不匹配问题,会造成新建的消防设备无法使用,进而造成项目无法通过验收。因此介绍了中国标准、美国标准及英国标准的消防接口的详情,以便设计时选择相适应的消防接口或转换接头,使得项目顺利进行。     

Energy-related standards and UK speculative office development

Non-domestic buildings have great potential for energy-related emission reductions in response to climate change. However, high-specification office buildings in the UK demonstrate that regulation, assessment and certification (‘standards’) have not incentivized the development of lower-energy office buildings as expected. Making use of the concepts of ‘qualculation’ and ‘calculative agency’, qualitative case studies of 10 speculatively developed office buildings in London, UK, provide new insight into why this is the case. Interview data (n?=?57) are used to illustrate how ‘market standards’ substitute for user needs, and ratchet up the provision of building services to maximize marketability competitively. The examples of energy modelling and the market’s (mis)use of British Council for Offices guidelines are used to explain how such standards perversely bolster energy-demanding levels of specification and building services, and militate against lower-energy design, in the sector researched. The potentials for alternative, performance-based standards and new industry norms of quality are discussed. It is concluded that at least the London speculative office market by its very constitution and operation, including the reliance on standards, continues to create increasingly energy-demanding buildings.     

Cyclone damage and temporal changes to building vulnerability and economic risks for residential construction

A risk analysis procedure is developed to predict economic risks due to changes to existing housing vulnerability over time. The wind hazard and building vulnerability models are based on exposure of residential construction to cyclones in North Queensland, Australia. A feature of the building vulnerability model is that it includes the effect of enhanced (post-1980) building standards in North Queensland. A cyclone damage risk-cost-benefit analysis is then used to assess the economic viability of strengthening existing houses to post-1980 construction quality for temporal changes in economic risks for two scenarios: (i) retrofitting pre-1980 houses to post-1980 quality immediately after they experience cyclone damage, or (ii) rate of growth of the proportion of post-1980 construction. The cost of retrofit or additional cost of strengthened construction can be included in the risk analysis to help assess the economic viability of these and other scenarios. Results are given in terms of annual and annualised economic risks and the damage loss conditional on occurrence of an Average Recurrence Interval event. The annualised economic risk is a time-variant measure of risk that is influenced by temporal changes in building vulnerability, which can be used to help determine the time when a particular strengthening strategy will be economically viable. “Zones of economic viability” determine the potential for cost-effective retrofitting of residential construction. The risk analysis also enabled the time to economic viability to be calculated.     

Health-Risks Assessment of Dinghy Sailing in Avon and Exposure to Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)

In 1990, the health hazards associated with cyanobacteria attracted widespread interest. In this study, the risks associated with dinghy sailing on two water reservoirs in Avon were examined when the National Rivers Authority concentration threshold for 'a potential to cause harm'was exceeded at one of these sites. No unusual illnesses were identified and the patterns of reported minor health symptoms were similar at each site. These patterns were also similar to those found amongst freshwater dinghy sailors in Hampshire when the NRA cyanobacteria threshold was exceeded, and similar to patterns of minor morbidity identified amongst dinghy sailors in marine waters when the EC bathing water quality standards are met. The consistency of these findings from three different studies suggests that present Royal Yachting Association guidelines for dinghy sailors are adequate to safeguard their health from cyanobacteria exposure.     

Trapping and furbearer management in North American wildlife conservation

Furbearer Management in North America maintains wild furbearer populations at sustainably harvestable, scientifically determined and socially acceptable levels. Furbearer management impacts numerous wildlife populations and habitats, and human health, safety and property. Achieving balance in the management of furbearers is not always an easy task partly because regulated trapping, a controversial management technique, plays a critical role in this balance. Steps have been taken by wildlife professionals to improve the humaneness of trapping through the development of international standards used to evaluate traps. These efforts will ideally preserve trapping and the many roles it plays in furbearer management and wildlife management in general.     

南通醋酸纤维有限公司四期自备水厂工艺设计

结合工程概况，根据其原水水质特征，确定了具体的技术方案，详细阐述了其工艺设计情况，指出该设计达到了工业用水水质标准，在工业用水水厂设计方面具有一定的代表性。     

上海世博园区透水路面排水侧石施工及验收

针对上海世博园区透水路面的设计和应用,研发了一种新型排水侧石。道路排水侧石由平石、立石、基础构成,从平石和立石的尺寸及允许偏差要求、强度和外观质量等角度介绍了排水侧石施工和验收的具体标准。介绍了基础与立石的施工顺序,详细交待了施工放样、养护及与雨水井的衔接要点,从检查、清理、坞膀和灌缝等方面介绍了平石的安装要点。最后给出了排水侧石质量验收标准。     

Water Treatment in Europe and North America

Significant differences in the way that basic water-treatment processes are engineered in Europe and the US have been apparent for nearly 50 years. In the US, standardized and rather conservative treatment works have been in wide use for decades, whereas in Europe there is a wide range of designs, many having important advantages in terms of cost and efficiency. It is significant that in Europe, specialist treatment plant contractors make a major contribution to the development of new designs, whereas in the US this is mainly the responsibility of consultants. Drinking water quality standards are becoming more complex, and it is considered that the technologies used on the two continents for dealing with the newer contaminants will be similar. The system used in the US for developing water quality regulations, which is scientifically based and involves considerable consultation with the water industry, has major advantages over that used in the European Community.     

Estimated effect of ventilation and filtration on chronic health risks in U.S. offices,schools, and retail stores

We assessed the chronic health risks from inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM2.5) in U.S. offices, schools, grocery, and other retail stores and evaluated how chronic health risks were affected by changes in ventilation rates and air filtration efficiency. Representative concentrations of VOCs and PM2.5 were obtained from available data. Using a mass balance model, changes in exposure to VOCs and PM2.5 were predicted if ventilation rate were to increase or decrease by a factor of two, and if higher efficiency air filters were used. Indoor concentrations were compared to health guidelines to estimate percentage exceedances. The estimated chronic health risks associated with VOC and PM2.5 exposures in these buildings were low relative to the risks from exposures in homes. Chronic health risks were driven primarily by exposures to PM2.5 that were evaluated using disease incidence of mortality, chronic bronchitis, and non‐fatal stroke. The leading cancer risk factor was exposure to formaldehyde. Using disability‐adjusted life years (DALYs) to account for both cancer and non‐cancer effects, results suggest that increasing ventilation alone is ineffective at reducing chronic health burdens. Other strategies, such as pollutant source control and the use of particle filtration, should also be considered.