Definition of the optimum freezing rate-1. Investigation of structure and ultrastructure of beef M. longissimus dorsi frozen at different freezing rates

The influence of freezing rate on location, shape and size of ice crystals formed during freezing of beef M. longissimus dorsi, as well as its influence on ultrastructure, were investigated. Muscle samples were frozen at different rates: 0·22 cm/h and 0·39 cm/h (cooling agent was chilled air), and 3·33 cm/h, 3.95 cm/h, 4·92 cm/h and 5·66 cm/h (cooling agent was liquid carbon dioxide which expanded in the sucking-pipe of the tunnel freezer).

It was found that by slow freezing (freezing rates 0·22 cm/h and 0·39 cm/h) 30·00 μm). An increase in the freezing rate was followed by a change in ice crystal location. In this case they had also been formed intracellularly. The number of crystals increased while their size decreased.

The most intensive fibre damage was found in samples frozen at a rate of 0·22 cm/h, and the least in samples frozen at a rate of 3·95 cm/h with a freezing temperature of −50°C.     

Relationship between heat transfer parameters and the characteristic damage variables for the freezing of beef

One of the most suitable parameters for relating the freezing rate to the volume of drip produced during the thawing of meat is the characteristic time, defined as the time necessary to reduce the temperature of the sample from −1·1°C (initial freezing point in beef) to −7°C (80% of the water frozen).

However, as the freezing of beef in factories takes place with important temperature gradients, distributions of these characteristic times must be expected along the pieces of frozen meat.

In order to relate these characteristic time distributions to heat transfer parameters under industrial freezing conditions, a mathematical model which simulates the freezing of beef is developed in this paper.

The model establishes the heat transfer equations with simultaneous change of phase, taking into account the dependence of the thermal properties with the ice content and considering the anisotropy of the thermal conductivity according to the direction of the fibres.

Boundary conditions include the possibility of thermal resistances in the refrigerated interphase.

The model developed was compared with laboratory experiments performed under factory freezing conditions and showed a satisfactory agreement between theory and experiment.     

Physico-chemical and organoleptic properties of patties from hot, chilled and frozen goat meat

The effects of processing hot versus chilled goat meat, as such and after freezing in chunk or mince forms, were studied in relation to physico-chemical and organoleptic properties of patties. The differences in the pH of the meat samples were non-significant (P < 0·05) at 3–4 h post mortem (PM) at room temperature (30°C) and after 24 h at 4°C. The yield of the broiled patties, prepared from hot meat at 3–4 h PM, was significantly lower (P<0·05) as compared to those from chilled meat. However, this trend was reversed, if processing of hot meat into patties was done within 1–2 h PM. Freezing of chilled meat in chunk or mince forms gave significantly higher (P < 0·05) cooking yields than freezing of hot meat in similar forms.

The organoleptic scores of the raw-cooked patties were similar for all treatments. Freezing of precooked patties at −10°C for 10 days, thawing and reheating did not reduce most of the sensory scores significantly (P<0·05). Moisture, protein and fat contents of the broiled patties were not significantly (P<0·05) affected by the treatments. Standard plate count of hot versus chilled meat, for all levels of processing and storage, were within acceptable limits.     

Effect of freezing, thawing and frozen storage on physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of buffalo meat

A study was conducted on some physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of buffalo meat frozen by plate and blast freezing and stored at −15 ± 3°C for a period of 3 months. A marginal increase in pH values and drip losses were observed during the storage period. Drip losses were less in blast frozen samples. WHC, cooking losses thermal shrinkage and WB Shear values indicated inconsistent results, during storage. Similar observations were recorded with regard to tyrosine and TBA values. No significant differences in the physico-chemical characteristics were observed between meat cuts and minced meat. Plate frozen meat samples scored higher for texture, juiciness and aroma. Both the plate and blast frozen meat samples, however, were similar in overall quality according to taste panel results.     

Effects of freezing, thawing and storage on some quality factors for portion-size beef cuts

Portion-size beef cuts packaged in oxygen impermeable plastic bags were used to study the effects of rates of freezing and thawing, and storage time and temperature on drip and cooking losses, shear force, destruction of glutathione and accumulation of protein-breakdown products in meat. Portions weighing 150 g or over and frozen in an air-blast at −30°C gave lower losses of drip and lower amounts of nitrogenous constituents in drip than samples weighing less than 150 g or samples frozen in cardboard boxes in still air at −18°C. Freezing and thawing or frozen storage had no significant effect on shear force of meat frozen after ageing. During frozen storage, the destruction of glutathione and accumulation of protein-breakdown products increased, depending directly on storage temperature and time. The results show that a test based on these two biochemical changes would be suitable for assessing the quality of frozen beef.     

FREEZING OF RAW BEEF: INFLUENCE OF AGING, FREEZING RATE AND COOKING METHOD ON QUALITY AND YIELD

The combined effects of aging, freezing rate, frozen storage and cooking method on beef quality and yield were studied in a multifactorial experiment, using 1.5 cm slices of LD muscles from young steers. Aging for 2 wk resulted in significantly more tender, but slightly less juicy frozen meat than aging for 4 days. Prolonged frozen storage gave tougher meat and a larger tenderness difference between aging times. Freezing rates of 13, 2.0 and 0.04 cm/h differed but little in their effect on sensory quality, but slightly lower yield and redness value were noted for the lowest rate. Pan frying directly from the frozen state resulted in slightly higher juiciness and cooking yield, with larger differences in yield between freezing rates, than cooking after previous thawing. Significant interactions were noted for cooking method × freezing rate and for aging time × frozen storage time     

Ultra-fast freezing and low storage temperatures are not necessary to maintain the functional properties of manufacturing beef

The effects of freezing rates and subsequent storage temperatures on the functional properties of meat were assessed. In the first trial, 24 Semitendinosus muscles were allocated to four freezing treatments to determine the effect of freezing rate alone (no frozen storage) on the functional properties of thawed muscle proteins. In the second trial, the effect of freezing rate, storage temperature and time were determined: 24 semimembranosus muscles were assigned to 30 treatment combinations using an incomplete factorial design with two freezing rates × three storage temperatures × five storage times. All samples individually sealed in water impermeable bags were thawed in water at 10?°C and then analysed. The rate of freezing alone in both trials and for both muscles had no effect on protein solubility; sulphydryl content; surface hydrophobicity; emulsion activity index or meat colour. Slowly frozen semimembranosus had more drip than fast frozen muscles. Semimembranosus muscle sarcoplasmic protein solubility increased and myofibrillar protein solubility decreased with storage temperature below -18?°C. Storage temperature did not affect the other attributes measured. Functional properties were mainly affected by storage time and the interaction between storage time and freezing rate. It is concluded that the current practice of blast freezing and storage at -18 to 20?°C is sufficient to maintain the quality of manufacturing beef.     

静电场辅助冻结-解冻对肌肉保水性及蛋白理化特性的影响

以牛背最长肌（Longissmus dorsi）为研究对象,探讨静电场辅助冻结-解冻、自然冻结-解冻（对照组）、 自然冻结-静电场辅助解冻、静电场辅助冻结-自然解冻4 个处理对肌肉保水性及蛋白理化特性的影响,为冷冻肉 品质控制技术开发提供理论依据。采用差示扫描量热、核磁共振质子成像等技术,对比分析了冻结-解冻速率、解 冻汁液流失、蛋白表面疏水性、热稳定性、水分迁移等指标。结果表明：静电场辅助冻结-解冻实验组牛肉冻结、 解冻时间较对照组分别缩短16.290、8.920 h;通过最大冰晶生成带用时较对照组缩短3.41 h;解冻汁液流失率显著 低于对照组（P＜0.05）,为4.19%;冻结蛋白质表面疏水性显著降低,为16.16 μg,解冻后显著升高,为9.45 μg （P＜0.05）;蛋白质变性程度显著低于对照组（P＜0.05）,变性温度分别为55.130、63.940、78.350 ℃。静电场 辅助冻结-解冻可有效提高牛肉冻结-解冻速率,降低肌原纤维蛋白变性程度,减少解冻汁液损失。     

Conventional freezing plus high pressure-low temperature treatment: Physical properties, microbial quality and storage stability of beef meat

Meat high-hydrostatic pressure treatment causes severe decolouration, preventing its commercialisation due to consumer rejection. Novel procedures involving product freezing plus low-temperature pressure processing are here investigated. Room temperature (20 °C) pressurisation (650 MPa/10 min) and air blast freezing (−30 °C) are compared to air blast freezing plus high pressure at subzero temperature (−35 °C) in terms of drip loss, expressible moisture, shear force, colour, microbial quality and storage stability of fresh and salt-added beef samples (Longissimus dorsi muscle). The latter treatment induced solid water transitions among ice phases. Fresh beef high pressure treatment (650 MPa/20 °C/10 min) increased significantly expressible moisture while it decreased in pressurised (650 MPa/−35 °C/10 min) frozen beef. Salt addition reduced high pressure-induced water loss. Treatments studied did not change fresh or salt-added samples shear force. Frozen beef pressurised at low temperature showed L, a and b values after thawing close to fresh samples. However, these samples in frozen state, presented chromatic parameters similar to unfrozen beef pressurised at room temperature. Apparently, freezing protects meat against pressure colour deterioration, fresh colour being recovered after thawing. High pressure processing (20 °C or −35 °C) was very effective reducing aerobic total (2-log₁₀ cycles) and lactic acid bacteria counts (2.4-log₁₀ cycles), in fresh and salt-added samples. Frozen + pressurised beef stored at −18 °C during 45 days recovered its original colour after thawing, similarly to just-treated samples while their counts remain below detection limits during storage.     

Effect of freezing on sensory quality, shear force and water loss in beef M. longissimus dorsi

The objective of this study was to determine how sensory quality, shear force and water loss differ between beef stored either chilled or frozen before cooking. Meat tenderness was analysed instrumentally and sensorially using both a consumer panel and a semi-trained panel. Both M. longissimus dorsi (LD) from eight young Holstein bulls were cut into eight samples, weighed, vacuum packed and aged at 4 °C for 2, 7 or 14 days. After ageing, the frozen samples were kept at −20 °C prior to heat treatment. Water holding capacity was recorded as purge or thawing loss and cooking loss or as combined loss. Sensory analyses were performed on samples aged 7 days. Peak force values declined with ageing time and freezing. Frozen meat aged 2 days had the same peak force values as chilled meat aged 7 days. Total energy was the same for both treatments at day 2 and 7, whereas at day 14 frozen samples showed significantly higher values than chilled samples. The sensory panel experienced the chilled meat to be more tender, juicier and having a more intense meat taste than the frozen meat, whereas the consumers could not find any significant difference in degree of liking. Water holding capacity was lower for the frozen samples. The results indicate that conclusions from studies concerning sensory quality of beef will depend on whether the meat has been kept chilled or frozen before testing.     

宰后不同时间冻结对猪肉保水性和组织结构的影响

采用配对试验设计方法研究了宰后45 min和宰后4 h冻结肉样在冻结损失、解冻汁液流失、蒸煮损失、加压失水率、蛋白溶解度、pH、剪切力和组织结构变化等方面的差异,结果显示:(1)宰后45 min冻结的肉在总的冻结和解冻损失、解冻汁液流失和蒸煮损失方面均显著小于宰后4h冻结的肉样(P<0.05)。宰后45 min冻结肉样在加压失水率和冻结损失方面无显著差异(P>0.05)。(2)肌浆蛋白溶解度宰后45 min冻结的肉显著高于宰后4 h冻结的肉(P<0.01)。而总蛋白溶解度和肌原纤维蛋白溶解度则都是宰后45 min冻结的肉低于宰后4 h冻结的肉。(3)宰后45 min冻结肉样的pH显著高于宰后4 h冻结的肉样(P<0.01)。(4)随着宰后时间的延长,未冻结肉样的肌细胞外空隙面积明显增大。(5)宰后45 min冻结的肉样比宰后4 h冻结的肉样的冰晶分布更均匀,相对来说其冰晶也较小一些。     

解冻后兔肉待加工过程中肌原纤维蛋白功能性质的变化

研究解冻后兔肉待加工过程中肌原纤维蛋白（myofibrillar protein,MP）功能性质的变化。兔后腿肉及背最长肌肉置于－18 ℃ 条件下冻藏7 d,取出在20 ℃水中解冻至中心温度为0 ℃后,放置7 h,测定在放置过程中兔肉的MP溶解性、活性巯基及总巯基含量、乳化性、表面疏水性、流变学性质、凝胶特性。结果显示：随着在水中放置时间的延长,兔肉MP溶解度、巯基含量、乳化活性和乳化稳定性、凝胶特性逐渐下降,在4 h时下降较为显著（P＜0.05）;MP表面疏水性逐渐上升,在4 h时上升较为显著（P＜0.05）;MP弹性模量G’值在加热过程中也逐渐降低,兔肉蛋白形成凝胶的能力减弱。     

Effect of freezing temperature, thawing and cooking rate on water distribution in two pork qualities

The effects of freezing temperature (-20 versus -80°C) in combination with long-term freezer storage (-20°C) on water mobility and distribution in pork of two qualities (normal and high ultimate pH) were explored using low-field NMR T(2) relaxometry. A marked effect of freezing temperature on the characteristics of intra- and extramyofibrillar water (T(2) relaxation times) in the thawed pork was demonstrated, implying that the freezing temperature in combination with prolonged freezer storage affects the distribution and chemical-physical state of water in the thawed meat. Determination of technological properties (thawing and cooking loss) revealed that the observed T(2) variations related to water distribution and water properties, which were found to be consistent with the degree of structural damage assessed by light microscopy, also were reflected in the technological quality of the meat. Low freezing temperature in combination with prolonged freezer storage was associated with increased thawing and cooking loss. In addition, pH in the fresh meat had a pronounced effect on the distribution of myofibrillar water, as a more homogenous pore size distribution was evident in meat with high pH compared with normal pH. A clear effect of cooking rate on the T(2) relaxation characteristics in the cooked pork was also demonstrated, probably reflecting a cooking rate-induced effect on the myofibrillar structures. The effect of cooking rate on water distribution resulted in a significantly lower cooking loss upon a slow cooking rate (0.5°C/min from 25 to 65°C and 0.3°C/min from 65 to 80°C) compared with a fast cooking rate (1°C/min).     

Effect of freezing conditions and storage on ice crystal and drip volume in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus): Evaluation of pressure shift freezing vs. air-blast freezing

Turbot fillets were frozen either by pressure shift freezing (PSF, 140 MPa, −14°C) or by air-blast freezing (ABF), and then stored at −20°C for 75 days. Smaller and more regular intracellular ice crystals were observed in fillets frozen by PSF compared with air-blast frozen ones. Ice crystals area in PSF samples was approximately 10 times smaller than that of ABF samples, on average. The PSF process reduced thawing drip compared with air-blast freezing. Conversely to this classical freezing process, the storage time did not adversely influence the thawing drip of PSF samples. In addition, PSF appeared to reduce cooking drip after 45 days of storage at −20°C. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis showed a significant reduction of the total enthalpy of denaturation for the pressure shift frozen samples compared to fresh and conventional frozen samples. Besides, a new melting transition appeared on the thermogram of PSF samples at approximately +40°C.     

冷冻及解冻处理对肌原纤维蛋白理化性质的影响

研究不同的冻结温度（-18 ℃和-50 ℃）和解冻方式（微波解冻、空气解冻及4 ℃解冻）对猪肉肌原纤维蛋白含量和理化特性的影响。结果表明,在不同冻结温度与解冻方式下,肌原纤维蛋白的含量、溶解性、乳化活性、乳化稳定性、起泡性及起泡稳定性均降低,表面疏水性增加。其中,采用-18 ℃冻结,微波解冻处理的肌原纤维蛋白与对照组相比,其溶解性、乳化性、乳化稳定性、起泡性及起泡稳定性分别降低了38.7%、16.5%、28.3%、39.6%和17.3%;采用-50 ℃冻结,4 ℃解冻的蛋白其含量（6.32%）、溶解性（22.05%）、乳化性（7.89 m2/g）、乳化稳定性（32%）、起泡性（30.95%）及起泡稳定性（62.25%）与其他处理对应的各指标相比,理化特性均保持较好。不同的冷冻和解冻条件下,肌原纤维蛋白各指标之间的变化相互关联。     

Effect of freezing method and frozen storage duration on instrumental quality of lamb throughout display

This study evaluated the effect of freezing method (FM) (air blast freezer, freezing tunnel, or nitrogen chamber) and frozen storage duration (FSD) (1, 3, or 6 months) on the instrumental measurements of quality of thawed lamb, aged for a total of 72 h, throughout a 10-d display period, compared to the quality of fresh meat. pH, colour, lipid oxidation, thawing, and cooking losses in Longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle, were determined following standard methods. FM affected yellowness, FSD redness and thawing losses, and both affected oxidation (increased as freezing rate decreased and/or as storage duration increased). When compared with fresh meat, the main differences appeared on oxidation (where a significant interaction between treatment (3FM × 3FSD + fresh meat) with display duration was detected), and on total losses (thaw + cook losses). Oxidation was lower in fresh meat, but values were not significantly different from those stored frozen for 1 month. Fresh meat had smaller total losses than did thawed meat, but losses were not significantly different from meat frozen in the freezing tunnel and stored frozen for 1 month. Display duration had a greater effect on instrumental quality parameters than did FM or FSD. pH, b*, and oxidation increased, and L* and a* decreased with an increase in the number of days on display. In conclusion, neither freezing method nor frozen storage up to 6 months influenced extensively the properties of lamb when instrumental measurements of quality were measured in meat that had been displayed for 1 d after thawing. The small deterioration shown in this study should not give consumers concerns about frozen meat.     

不同冻结温度下牛肉的肌原纤维蛋白变性与肌肉持水性

为明确冷冻温度对牛肉肌原纤维蛋白变性和肌肉持水性（water-holding capacity,WHC）的影响、探讨肌 原纤维蛋白变性与WHC的相关性。以牛背最长肌作实验材料,探究－9、－18、－23、－38 ℃下冻结后肌原纤维 蛋白理化特性和牛肉WHC。通过测定巯基含量、蛋白质溶解度、Ca2＋-三磷酸腺苷酶（adenosine triphosphatase, ATPase）活力及蛋白质热稳定性考察牛肉冻结后肌原纤维蛋白变性情况,利用解冻汁液流失与加压失水率指标衡 量牛肉WHC,采用低场核磁共振（low field-nuclear magnetic resonance,LF-NMR）波谱和磁共振成像（magnetic resonance imaging,MRI）技术对比分析了肌肉水分分布情况,并于4 ℃解冻后测定了色差与剪切力。结果表明： －23 ℃与－38 ℃下冻结试样较－9 ℃与－18 ℃肌原纤维蛋白变性程度小：－23 ℃与－38 ℃下冻结试样蛋白质溶解 度、Ca2＋-ATPase活力、巯基含量和总变性焓相比－9 ℃与－18 ℃实验组较高（P＜0.05）。－23 ℃与－38 ℃下冻 结牛肉解冻后L*值、b*值、剪切力、解冻汁液流失和加压失水率显著低于－9 ℃与－18 ℃（P＜0.05）。LF-NMR 及MRI结果相互佐证了肉样在－23 ℃与－38 ℃冻结下肌肉WHC高于－9 ℃与－18 ℃的实验结果。肌原纤维蛋白理 化特性（蛋白质溶解度、Ca2＋-ATPase活力、巯基含量、总变性焓）与WHC（解冻汁液流失率、加压失水率）均呈 极显著相关（P＜0.01）,L*、b*值及剪切力亦与WHC存在极显著相关（P＜0.01）。相关性分析结果验证了牛肉冻结 过程中肌原纤维蛋白变性对肌肉持水性存在显著影响,进而导致牛肉解冻后出现肉色劣变、嫩度下降及汁液流失。     

Effects of pressure-shift freezing and pressure-assisted thawing on sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) quality

ABSTRACT:   Effects of pressure-shift freezing and/or pressure-assisted thawing on the quality of sea bass muscle were evaluated and compared with conventional (air-blast) frozen and thawed samples. Microstructural analysis showed a marked decrease of muscle cell damage for pressure-assisted frozen samples. According to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), protein extractability, and SDS-PAGE results, high-pressure treatment (200 MPa) produced a partial denaturation with aggregation and insolubilization of the myosin, as well as alterations of the sarcoplasmic proteins. Only small differences between high-pressure processes (freezing or/and thawing) were registered. High-pressure-treated systems led to a decrease of water holding capacity but differences between high-pressure and conventional methods disappeared after cooking. Muscle color showed important alterations due to high-pressure treatments (increasing L * and b *).     

基于低场核磁共振探究解冻过程中肌原纤维水对鸡肉食用品质的影响

本研究旨在基于低场核磁共振横向弛豫时间T2分析解冻过程中肌原纤维水的分布及流动性与鸡肉食用品质间的关联性。以冷鲜鸡胸肉（宰后32 h）为对照,采用冷藏解冻、微波解冻（微波-1、微波-2）与超声解冻（180、200 W）5 种不同方式解冻中心温度为－20 ℃的冻结鸡胸肉,测定肉样T2、品质特性指标并分析它们之间的相关性。结果显示：解冻过程中肉样的T2水分分布情况发生明显变化,与对照组相比,除微波-2解冻外,其余4 组解冻肉样均发生不易流动水T22（40～50 ms）向自由水T23（100～250 ms）迁移;同时,微波-2解冻与200 W超声解冻出现强结合水水分群T20（0～0.1 ms）;相关性分析表明,T20、T21和T22峰比例与肉样的持水能力、嫩度和多汁性呈极显著正相关（P＜0.01）,与解冻损失率、蒸煮损失率呈显著（P＜0.05）或极显著（P＜0.01）负相关;剪切力与T20峰比例呈显著负相关（P＜0.05）,与T22峰比例呈极显著负相关（P＜0.01）。解冻方式对肉样的外观和风味无显著影响（P＞0.05）,微波-2解冻肉样的质地与多汁性评分最接近于对照组,整体可接受性更高;冷藏解冻与超声解冻肉样的质地与多汁性更差,整体可接受性也更低。因此,本项研究结果表明在解冻过程中肌原纤维水的迁移情况对鸡肉品质具有显著影响,并且微波-2解冻程序能够更好地抑制解冻过程中肉品质的下降。