Organ dose conversions from ESR measurements using tooth enamel of atomic bomb survivors

Dose conversions were studied for dosimetry of atomic bomb survivors based upon electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements of tooth enamel. Previously analysed data had clarified that the tooth enamel dose could be much larger than other organ doses from a low-energy photon exposure. The radiation doses to other organs or whole-body doses, however, are assumed to be near the tooth enamel dose for photon energies which are dominant in the leakage spectrum of the Hiroshima atomic bomb assumed in DS02. In addition, the thyroid can be a candidate for a surrogate organ in cases where the tooth enamel dose is not available in organ dosimetry. This paper also suggests the application of new Japanese voxel phantoms to derive tooth enamel doses by numerical analyses.     

Leukaemia following childhood radiation exposure in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and in medically exposed groups

Incidence and mortality risks of radiation-associated leukaemia are surveyed in the Japanese atomic bomb (A-bomb) survivors exposed in early childhood and in utero. Leukaemia incidence and mortality risks are also surveyed in 16 other studies of persons who received appreciable doses of ionizing radiation in the course of treatment in childhood and for whom there is adequate dosimetry and cancer incidence or mortality follow-up. Relative risks tend to be lower in the medical series than in the Japanese A-bomb survivors. The relative risks in the medical studies tend to diminish with increasing average therapy dose. After taking account of cell sterilisation and dose fractionation, the apparent differences between the relative risks for leukaemia in the Japanese A-bomb survivors and in the medical series largely disappear. This suggests that cell sterilisation largely accounts for the discrepancy between the relative risks in the Japanese data and the medical studies. Excess absolute risk has also been assessed in four studies, and there is found to be more variability in this measure than in excess relative risk. In particular, there is a substantial difference between the absolute risk in the Japanese atomic bomb survivor data and those in three other (European) populations. In summary, the relative risks of leukaemia in studies of persons exposed to appreciable doses of ionizing radiation in the course of treatment for a variety of malignant and non-malignant conditions in childhood are generally less than those in the Japanese A-bomb survivor data. The effects of cell sterilisation can largely explain the discrepancy between the Japanese and the medical series.     

Risk of cancer and non-cancer diseases in the atomic bomb survivors

Late health effects of exposure to atomic bomb radiation have been evaluated in survivors. A cohort of 120 321 people has been followed since 1950 for mortality, including the cause of death using the Japanese population registry system (Life Span Study), and for cancer incidence using population-based cancer registries. Findings have included a markedly increased risk of leukaemia several years after the exposure, increased risk of various malignant tumours several decades after the exposure and, more recently, findings of increased rates of non-cancer diseases such as cardiovascular diseases.     

Yttrium and lanthanides in human lung fluids, probing the exposure to atmospheric fallout

Inhalation of airborne particles can produce crystallization of phosphatic microcrysts in intraaveolar areas of lungs, sometimes degenerating into pulmonary fibrosis. Results of this study indicate that these pathologies are induced by interactions between lung fluids and inhaled atmospheric dust in people exposed to volcanic dust ejected from Mount Etna in 2001. Here, the lung solid-liquid interaction is evaluated by the distribution of yttrium and lanthanides (YLn) in fluid bronchoalveolar lavages on selected individuals according the classical geochemical approaches. We found that shale-normalised patterns of yttrium and lanthanides have a 'V shaped' feature corresponding to the depletion of elements from Nd to Tb when compared to the variable enrichments of heavy lanthanides, Y, La and Ce. These features and concurrent thermodynamic simulations suggest that phosphate precipitation can occur in lungs due to interactions between volcanic particles and fluids. We propose that patterns of yttrium and lanthanides can represent a viable explanation of some pathology observed in patients after prolonged exposure to atmospheric fallout and are suitable to become a diagnostic parameter of chemical environmental stresses.     

Radiation exposure and disease questionnaires of early entrants after the Hiroshima bombing

It is popularly known that people who entered into the ground-zero area shortly after the atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki suffered from various syndromes similar to acute radiation effects. External exposures from neutron-induced radionuclides in soil have recently been reassessed based on DS02 calculations as functions of both distance from the hypocentres and elapsed time after the explosions. Significant exposure due to induced radiation can be determined for those who entered the area within 1000 m from the hypocentres shortly after the bombing. Although it was impossible to track the action of each of the survivors over the days or weeks following the bombings in order to make reliable dose estimates for their exposures to soil activation or fallout, four individuals among those early entrants were investigated here to describe useful information of what happened shortly after the bombing.     

MCNPX alpha particle dose estimate to the skin tissue from a low-enriched uranium fuel fragment

Three alpha volume sources (low-enriched uranium-U(3)Si) were analysed using Monte Carlo modelling in order to calculate the dose delivered to the dermis from a small embedded fuel fragment (sliver). Three shapes were analysed using MCNPX 2.6.0 code: sphere, cylinder and parallelepiped. Essentially, two kinds of runs were performed: count rate run and dosimetry run. The two results were combined to estimate dose coefficients that can be used for alpha dose assessments in the field. The two results were obtained for the 1 and 0 cm counting geometries. These results are very stable and show that the actual dose delivered to the skin per unit count rate for the recovered particle is independent of the shape of the volume alpha source.     

Comparison of dose estimation from occupational exposure to 239Pu using different modelling approaches

Several approaches are available for bioassay interpretation when assigning Pu doses to Mayak workers. First, a conventional approach is to apply ICRP models per se. An alternative method involves individualised fitting of bioassay data using Bayesian statistical methods. A third approach is to develop an independent dosimetry system for Mayak workers by adapting ICRP models using a dataset of available bioassay measurements for this population. Thus, a dataset of 42 former Mayak workers, who died of non-radiation effects, with both urine bioassay and post-mortem tissue data was used to test these three approaches. All three approaches proved to be adequate for bioassay and tissue interpretation, and thus for Pu dose reconstruction purposes. However, large discrepancies are observed in the resulting quantitative dose estimates. These discrepancies can, in large part, be explained by differences in the interpretation of Pu behaviour in the lungs in the context of ICRP lung model. Thus, a careful validation of Pu lung dosimetry model is needed in Mayak worker dosimetry systems.     

Estimation of the dose to the nursing infant due to direct irradiation from activity present in maternal organs and tissues

Radionuclides deposited internally in the mother will give rise to a radiation dose in the infant in two ways. The radionuclides may be transferred through milk and give rise to an internal dose in the infant, or the radionuclides may emit photons that are absorbed by the infant, giving rise to an external dose. In this paper, the external dose to the newborn infant caused by direct irradiation was estimated for monoenergetic photons. Voxel models (also called voxel phantoms) of the mother and infant were made in three geometries. These models, consisting of volume elements, or voxels, were designed so that the infant model was placed in the lap, at the breast and on the shoulder of the mother model. The Visual Monte Carlo (VMC) code was used to transport the photons through the voxel models. Source regions for the emitted photons, such as the whole body, the thyroid, the lung, the liver and the skeleton, were chosen. For the validation of the calculation procedure, VMC results were favourably compared with the results obtained by using other Monte Carlo programs and also with the previously published results for specific absorbed fractions. This paper provides estimates of the external dose per photon to the infant for photon energies between 0.05 and 2.5 MeV. The external dose per photon estimates were made for the three geometries and for the sources listed above. The results show that, for the geometry of the nursing infant model at the breast, the highest dose to the infant per photon comes from radionuclides deposited in the mother's liver. For the nursing infant model at the shoulder, the highest dose to the infant per photon comes from radionuclides deposited in the mother's thyroid, and for the nursing infant model in the lap, the highest dose to the infant per photon comes from radionuclides deposited uniformly in the whole body. The dose per photon results were then used to estimate the dose an infant might receive over the lactation period (6 months) due to the incorporation of 1 Bq of a radionuclide by the mother. This information may be used to provide external dose estimates to the infant in the case of a known or suspected radionuclide incorporation by the mother due to, for example, a nuclear medicine procedure.     

Assessment of gamma dose rates from terrestrial exposure in Serbia and Montenegro

The gamma dose rates due to naturally occuring terrestrial radionuclides ((226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K) were calculated based on their activities in soil samples, determined by gamma-ray spectrometry. A total of 140 soil samples from 21 different regions of Serbia and Montenegro were collected. The gamma dose rates ranged from 7.40 to 29.7 nGy h(-1) for (226)Ra, from 12.9 to 46.5 nGy h(-1) for (232)Th and from 12.5 to 37.1 nGy h(-1) for (40)K. The total absorbed gamma dose rate due to these radionuclides varied from 34.5 to 97.6 nGy h(-1) with mean of 66.8 nGy h(-1). Assuming a 20% occupancy factor, the corresponding annual effective dose varied from 4.23 x 10(-5) to 11.9 x 10(-5) Sv with mean of 8.19 x 10(-5) Sv, i.e. the dose was lower than world wide average value. According to the values of external hazard index (mean: 0.39) obtained in this study, the radiation hazard was found to be insignificant for population living in the investigated area.     

Analyses of absorbed dose to tooth enamel against external photon exposure

Absorbed dose to tooth enamel was examined against external photon exposure by measurements with thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLDs) and Monte Carlo calculations. TLDs were placed in a realistic physical phantom to measure dose to the teeth region in a head. A voxel-type phantom was constructed from computed tomography (CT) images of the physical phantom. Monte Carlo calculations with this voxel-type phantom were performed to analyse the results of the experiments. The data obtained were compared to the enamel doses, which were calculated with a modified MIRD-type phantom and already given in a previous paper. It was confirmed that the data derived with the MIRD-type phantom are applicable for retrospective individual dose assessments by electron spin resonance (ESR) dosimetry using teeth for the photon energy region above 300 keV. The analysis, however, indicated that the configuration of the head can affect the enamel dose relative to external exposure to photons with energy below 100 keV.     

Risk assessment after internal exposure to black sand from Camargue: uptake and prospective dose calculation

Some beaches in the south of France present high levels of natural radioactivity mainly due to thorium (Th) and uranium (U) present in the sand. Risk assessment after internal exposure of members of the public by either inhalation or ingestion of black sand of Camargue was performed. This evaluation required some information on the human bioavailability of U and Th from this sand. In vitro assays to determine the solubility of U, Th and their progeny were performed either in simulated lung fluid, with the inhalable fraction of sand, or in both simulated gastric and intestinal fluids with a sample of the whole sand. The experimental data show that the bioavailability of these radionuclides from Camargue sand is low in the conditions of the study. Prospective dose assessment for both routes of intake show low risk after internal exposure to this sand.     

Monte Carlo determination of age-dependent steady-state dose to red bone marrow and bone from 14C exposure

Monte Carlo simulations were carried out to calculate the age-dependent dose from the beta decay of 14C to marrow and bone on the basis of a steady-state specific-activity model. A model of the trabecular cavity containing spherical fat cells in a square lattice surrounded by haemopoietic tissue was employed. The age-dependent 14C dose to haemopoietic (red) marrow was estimated taking account of the change in the fat cell size with fat fraction. Allowances were made for the change in the percentage cellularity and distribution of active marrow in the whole skeleton as a function of age. Age-dependent changes in trabecular cavity size and bone composition were found to have only a small effect on dose. Dose rates were estimated under steady-state conditions, for food ingested with a 14C specific activity of 1 Bq g(-1) of C. The equivalent dose rate to the haemopoietic tissue of a 20 year-old adult is 77 microSv a(-1), and 39 microSv a(-1) for a 3-month-old infant. Similarly, the equivalent dose rate to the bone surfaces of an adult is 48 microSv a(-1), and 38 microSv a(-1) for an infant. Therefore, the equivalent dose rate to marrow and bone stem cells increases with age under steady state conditions.     

Estimation of safe exposure time from an ophthalmic operating microscope with regard to ultraviolet radiation and blue-light hazards to the eye

Hazards from the optical radiation of an operating microscope that cause damage at the corneal, lenticular, and retinal levels were investigated; we considered, in particular, ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and blue light. The spectral irradiance from a Zeiss operation microscope OPMI VISU 200 was measured in the corneal plane between 300 and 1100 nm. Effective irradiance and radiance were calculated with relative spectral effectiveness data from the American Conference for Governmental and Industrial Hygienists. Safe exposure time to avoid UVR injury to the lens and cornea was found to be 2 h without a filter, 4 h with a UVR filter, 200 a yellow filter, and 400 h with a filter combination. Safe exposure time to avoid retinal photochemical injury was found to be 3 min without a filter and with a UVR filter, 10 min with a yellow filter, and 49 min with a filter combination. The effective radiance limit for retinal thermal injury was not exceeded. The hazard due to the UVR component from the operating microscope is not critical, and operation time can be safely prolonged with the use of appropriate filters. The retinal photochemical hazard appears critical without appropriate filters, permitting only some minutes of safe exposure time. The calculated safe exposure times are for worst-case conditions and maximal light output and include a safety factor.     

Population dose from indoor gamma exposure in the dwellings around Kudankulam nuclear power plant

To assess the population dose due to the natural background radiation around the upcoming Kudankulam nuclear power plant, a systematic investigation has been carried out by measuring the indoor gamma dose. In total, 159 dwellings have been selected around the Kudankulam nuclear power plant area i.e. in Radhapuram and Nanguneri taluk (sub-districts) for the measurement. The geometric mean value of indoor gamma dose rate is 305 +/- 48 nGy h(-1) and 273 +/- 50 nGy h(-1) in Radhapuram and Nanguneri taluks (sub-districts), respectively. The annual effective dose due to indoor gamma radiation to the population has been found to be 1.5 mSv and 1.36 mSv in Radhapuram and Nanguneri taluks, respectively.     

Monte Carlo calculations of the dose distribution in teeth due to internal exposure from 90Sr: application to EPR tooth dosimetry

This paper addresses issues in the application of the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) retrospective dosimetry with dental tissues exposed by radionuclides accumulated in the dentin. A simple dosimetric model of a tooth incorporating 90Sr is presented. The tooth is modelled as two concentric cylinders: the inner cylinder composed of dentin, and the outer cylindrical shell of enamel. Extensive Monte Carlo calculations were done to obtain the distributions of absorbed dose in dentin and enamel for teeth of different sizes. The results were used to calculate the mean absorbed doses in enamel that are directly measurable by EPR. A relationship between such measured doses and the specific activity of 90Sr in dentin was derived based on a simple model of 90Sr accumulation. The roles of different tooth tissues as dose detectors are analysed, and the importance of dentin as a dosimetric material for internal exposure is pointed out.     

Estimation of human exposure to natural radionuclides using in vivo skull measurements

In a preliminary study, in vivo skull measurements and in vitro urine measurements of 210Pb and nulU have been performed to find out the individual, chronic exposure to waterborne natural radionuclides of a small group of Finnish people. For their domestic water, the studied individuals use water from drilled wells containing elevated concentrations of natural uranium and its daughter nuclides ((234,235,238)U, 222Rn, (226,228)Ra, 210Po, 210Pb). Enhanced 210Pb and 235U activities were observed in several people. A positive correlation is observed between the U concentration in urine (microg d(-1)) and the number of counts (cpm) in the gamma ray energy peaks originating from the decay of 235U and 234Th respectively. Calibration of the detector set-up and the determination of background sources are in progress.     

Biomarkers of exposure and dose: state of the art.

Biomarkers provide methods to measure changes in biological systems and to relate them to environmental insults and disease processes. Biomarkers can be classified as markers of exposure and dose, markers of sensitivity, and markers of disease. It is important that the differences and applications of the various types of biomarkers be clearly understood. The military is primarily interested in early biomarkers of exposure and dose that do not require high levels of sensitivity but can be used to rapidly triage war fighters under combat or terrorist conditions and determine which, if any, require medical attention. Biomarkers of long-term radiation risk represent the second area of interest for the military. Biomarkers of risk require high sensitivity and specificity for the disease and insult but do not require rapid data turnaround. Biomarkers will help provide information for quick command decisions in the field, characterise long-term troop risks and identify early stages of radiation-induced diseases. This information provides major positive reassurances about individual exposures and risk that will minimise the physical and psychological impact of wartime radiation exposures.