The use of 2D and 3D displays for shape-understanding versus relative-position tasks

Research on when and how to use three-dimensional (3D) perspective views on flat screens for operational tasks such as air traffic control is complex. We propose a functional distinction between tasks: those that require shape understanding versus those that require precise judgments of relative position. The distortions inherent in 3D displays hamper judging relative positions, whereas the integration of dimensions in 3D displays facilitates shape understanding. We confirmed these hypotheses with two initial experiments involving simple block shapes. The shape-understanding tasks were identification or mental rotation. The relative-position tasks were locating shadows and determining directions and distances between objects. We then extended the results to four experiments involving complex natural terrain. We compare our distinction with the integral/separable task distinction of Haskel and Wickens (1993). Applications for this research include displays for air traffic control, geoplots for military command and control, and potentially, any display of 3D information.     

3D Interaction with the Desktop Bat

Many applications now demand interaction with visualizations of 3D scenes and data sets. Current flat 2D displays are limited in their capacity to provide this not only by the display technology but the interaction metaphors and devices used. The Desktop Bat is a device that has 5 degrees of freedom whilst retaining the simplicity of use o fa mouse. To use it for general 3D interaction several metaphors were created for the tasks of navigation and cursor manipulation and a set of experiments were conducted to determine which metaphors were the most efficient in use. Of these metaphors, a velocity control metaphor was the best for navigation and a metaphor that applied rotations and translations relative to the eyepoint coordinate system was best for object control.     

Stereoscopic 3D displays and human performance: A comprehensive review

To answer the question: “what is 3D good for?” we reviewed the body of literature concerning the performance implications of stereoscopic 3D (S3D) displays versus non-stereo (2D or monoscopic) displays. We summarized results of over 160 publications describing over 180 experiments spanning 51 years of research in various fields including human factors psychology/engineering, human–computer interaction, vision science, visualization, and medicine. Publications were included if they described at least one task with a performance-based experimental evaluation of an S3D display versus a non-stereo display under comparable viewing conditions. We classified each study according to the experimental task(s) of primary interest: (a) judgments of positions and/or distances; (b) finding, identifying, or classifying objects; (c) spatial manipulations of real or virtual objects; (d) navigation; (e) spatial understanding, memory, or recall and (f) learning, training, or planning. We found that S3D display viewing improved performance over traditional non-stereo (2D) displays in 60% of the reported experiments. In 15% of the experiments, S3D either showed a marginal benefit or the results were mixed or unclear. In 25% of experiments, S3D displays offered no benefit over non-stereo 2D viewing (and in some rare cases, harmed performance). From this review, stereoscopic 3D displays were found to be most useful for tasks involving the manipulation of objects and for finding/identifying/classifying objects or imagery. We examine instances where S3D did not support superior task performance. We discuss the implications of our findings with regard to various fields of research concerning stereoscopic displays within the context of the investigated tasks.     

An assisting,constrained 3D navigation technique for multiscale virtual 3D city models

Virtual 3D city models serve as integration platforms for complex geospatial and georeferenced information and as medium for effective communication of spatial information. In order to explore these information spaces, navigation techniques for controlling the virtual camera are required to facilitate wayfinding and movement. However, navigation is not a trivial task and many available navigation techniques do not support users effectively and efficiently with their respective skills and tasks. In this article, we present an assisting, constrained navigation technique for multiscale virtual 3D city models that is based on three basic principles: users point to navigate, users are lead by suggestions, and the exploitation of semantic, multiscale, hierarchical structurings of city models. The technique particularly supports users with low navigation and virtual camera control skills but is also valuable for experienced users. It supports exploration, search, inspection, and presentation tasks, is easy to learn and use, supports orientation, is efficient, and yields effective view properties. In particular, the technique is suitable for interactive kiosks and mobile devices with a touch display and low computing resources and for use in mobile situations where users only have restricted resources for operating the application. We demonstrate the validity of the proposed navigation technique by presenting an implementation and evaluation results. The implementation is based on service-oriented architectures, standards, and image-based representations and allows exploring massive virtual 3D city models particularly on mobile devices with limited computing resources. Results of a user study comparing the proposed navigation technique with standard techniques suggest that the proposed technique provides the targeted properties, and that it is more advantageous to novice than to expert users.     

Navidget for 3D interaction: Camera positioning and further uses

This paper presents an extended version of Navidget. Navidget is a new interaction technique for camera positioning in 3D environments. This technique derives from the point-of-interest (POI) approaches where the endpoint of a trajectory is selected for smooth camera motions. Unlike the existing POI techniques, Navidget does not attempt to automatically estimate where and how the user wants to move. Instead, it provides good feedback and control for fast and easy interactive camera positioning. Navidget can also be useful for distant inspection when used with a preview window. This new 3D user interface is totally based on 2D inputs. As a result, it is appropriate for a wide variety of visualization systems, from small handheld devices to large interactive displays. A user study on TabletPC shows that the usability of Navidget is very good for both expert and novice users. This new technique is more appropriate than the conventional 3D viewer interfaces in numerous 3D camera positioning tasks. Apart from these tasks, the Navidget approach can be useful for further purposes such as collaborative work and animation.     

An Investigation of Visual Cues used to Create and Support Frames of Reference and Visual Search Tasks in Desktop Virtual Environments

Visual depth cues are combined to produce the essential depth and dimensionality of Desktop Virtual Environments (DVEs). This study discusses DVEs in terms of the visual depth cues that create and support perception of frames of references and accomplishment of visual search tasks. This paper presents the results of an investigation that identifies the effects of the experimental stimuli positions and visual depth cues: luminance, texture, relative height and motion parallax on precise depth judgements made within a DVE. Results indicate that the experimental stimuli positions significantly affect precise depth judgements, texture is only significantly effective for certain conditions, and motion parallax, in line with previous results, is inconclusive to determine depth judgement accuracy for egocentrically viewed DVEs. Results also show that exocentric views, incorporating relative height and motion parallax visual cues, are effective for precise depth judgements made in DVEs. The results help us to understand the effects of certain visual depth cues to support the perception of frames of references and precise depth judgements, suggesting that the visual depth cues employed to create frames of references in DVEs may influence how effectively precise depth judgements are undertaken.     

Effects of 3D perspective on head gaze estimation with a multiview autostereoscopic display

Head gaze, or the orientation of the head, is a very important attentional cue in face to face conversation. Some subtleties of the gaze can be lost in common teleconferencing systems, because a single perspective warps spatial characteristics. A recent random hole display is a potentially interesting display for group conversation, as it allows multiple stereo viewers in arbitrary locations, without the restriction of conventional autostereoscopic displays on viewing positions. We represented a remote person as an avatar on a random hole display. We evaluated this system by measuring the ability of multiple observers with different horizontal and vertical viewing angles to accurately and simultaneously judge which targets the avatar is gazing at. We compared three perspective conditions: a conventional 2D view, a monoscopic perspective-correct view, and a stereoscopic perspective-correct views. In the latter two conditions, the random hole display shows three and six views simultaneously. Although the random hole display does not provide high quality view, because it has to distribute display pixels among multiple viewers, the different views are easily distinguished. Results suggest the combined presence of perspective-correct and stereoscopic cues significantly improved the effectiveness with which observers were able to assess the avatar׳s head gaze direction. This motivates the need for stereo in future multiview displays.     

Subjective quantification of perceptual interactions among some 2D scientific visualization methods

We present an evaluation of a parameterized set of 2D icon-based visualization methods where we quantified how perceptual interactions among visual elements affect effective data exploration. During the experiment, subjects quantified three different design factors for each method: the spatial resolution it could represent, the number of data values it could display at each point, and the degree to which it is visually linear. The class of visualization methods includes Poisson-disk distributed icons where icon size, icon spacing, and icon brightness can be set to a constant or coupled to data values from a 2D scalar field. By only coupling one of those visual components to data, we measured filtering interference for all three design factors. Filtering interference characterizes how different levels of the constant visual elements affect the evaluation of the data-coupled element. Our novel experimental methodology allowed us to generalize this perceptual information, gathered using ad-hoc artificial datasets, onto quantitative rules for visualizing real scientific datasets. This work also provides a framework for evaluating visualizations of multi-valued data that incorporate additional visual cues, such as icon orientation or color.     

Performance Comparison of a SSVEP BCI Task by Individual Stereoscopic 3D Susceptibility

This study aimed at investigating the differences in brain–computer interface (BCI) task performance between 2D and 3D displays depending on their individual susceptibility to stereoscopic 3D. Eleven female and 10 male participants attempted a steady-state visually evoked potential BCI navigation task in a virtual home environment with and without 3D views. Participants were categorized into fatigued and unfatigued groups, depending on their individual susceptibility to 3D, which was characterized using a subjective evaluation method for 3D visual fatigue. The task completion time for the fatigued group under the 3D conditions was significantly delayed relative to the 2D mode. In contrast, a significantly decreased completion time was observed in the 3D view relative to the 2D view for the unfatigued group. The averaged positive predictive value significantly increased in the 3D mode relative to the 2D one for the unfatigued group only. These results are expected to provide a practical implication for enhancing BCI task performance in light of individual vulnerability to 3D.     

The influence of different electronic maps and displays on performance and operator state in a geographic orientation task

Mobile electronic displays for geographic orientation and navigation are used increasingly in various civil and military domains. But it is still unclear which displays and kinds of map presentation suit best for specific purposes. In the present experiment, a head-mounted display (HMD) and a display from a personal digital assistant (PDA) were compared in a simulated geographic orientation task in an urban environment. Furthermore, the effect of three kinds of map presentation (egocentric, geocentric and geocentric with colour cues) was analysed. The simulated orientation task was projected on a screen and participants controlled their locomotion within the urban area by means of a joystick. Task completion time, peripheral attention, workload, fatigue and simulator sickness were registered as dependent variables. In comparison to the geocentric map the egocentric map showed a significant shorter task completion time and the geocentric map with colour cues a significant higher peripheral attention. Task completion time of the HMD and the PDA did not differ significantly. However, peripheral attention and most indices of workload, fatigue and simulator sickness were significantly better for the PDA. Therefore, the results recommend to apply PDAs and egocentric maps for comparable orientation tasks.     

Supporting Focus and Context Awareness in 3D Modelling Tasks Using Multi‐Layered Displays

Most 3D modelling software have been developed for conventional 2D displays, and as such, lack support for true depth perception. This contributes to making polygonal 3D modelling tasks challenging, particularly when models are complex and consist of a large number of overlapping components (e.g. vertices, edges) and objects (i.e. parts). Research has shown that users of 3D modelling software often encounter a range of difficulties, which collectively can be defined as focus and context awareness problems. These include maintaining position and orientation awarenesses, as well as recognizing distance between individual components and objects in 3D spaces. In this paper, we present five visualization and interaction techniques we have developed for multi‐layered displays, to better support focus and context awareness in 3D modelling tasks. The results of a user study we conducted shows that three of these five techniques improve users' 3D modelling task performance.     

一种多传感器融合的室内三维导航系统

提出了一种多传感器融合的室内三维导航系统,利用了建筑物内的地磁信号,结合转向角传感器记录转过的角度、气压传感器检测用户所处环境中楼层高度,采用众包思想收集数据进行地磁地图的构建,使用地磁指纹匹配技术实现室内任意位置的定位及导航.相比基于WiFi和蓝牙的室内导航系统,基于地磁的室内导航系统不需要任何基础网络设施,应用广泛、灵活,实现成本低.通过在智能手机上部署系统进行实验性能评估,结果显示最高精度达到1 m以内,有95%的导航误差在3m之内,平均误差不超过2m,证明其有良好的定位功能并适用于一般大型建筑物.     

Perceptions of electronic navigation displays

This study evaluated aesthetics and usability of in-vehicle electronic navigation maps. Experiment 1 examined map displays that varied in the amount of information presented, abstraction level, graphic/colour style and the existence of landmarks in both urban and rural environments using objective and subjective measures. Twenty participants performed navigation/localisation tasks using various map configurations while driving a driving simulator and completed usability and aesthetic questionnaires. The minimal detail map produced better performances and higher usability and aesthetic ratings when using maps with no landmarks. Adding information in the form of landmarks was found advantageous compared to additional textual information. Abstractions were most advantageous when combined with minimal amount of detail. Moderate abstractions were sufficient for obtaining the desired benefits when more details were present. The graphic/colour style affected subjective perceptions. Overall, high correlations were found for the perceived aesthetics and usability scales, however, low correlations were found between actual usability (i.e. performance) and perceived usability pointing to the importance of using both objective and subjective usability measures. Experiment 2 examined how maps varying in their aesthetic level (aesthetic versus non-aesthetic), different colour arrangements, and 2D versus 3D landmarks affect subjective and objective measures. Participants distinguished between usability and aesthetic perceptions and usability perceptions were less affected by aesthetics when the aesthetic level of the maps was low. Colour arrangement did not affect the measures examined. Both 2D and 3D landmarks were found to be aesthetic and usable. We conclude this article with guidelines for designing in-vehicle navigation map displays.     

导助航信息的三维可视化系统研究

导助航信息的三维可视化为船员提供清晰、直观的画面,方便船员准确地判断和掌握船舶所处的空间位置、水文环境、行进方向等重要信息。分析了整个三维可视化系统的体系结构;对导助航信息三维可视化的关键技术进行了研究,通过斜墨卡托投影实现地理坐标系到世界坐标系的坐标转换;提出一种方法计算航标位置、偏转角度用以指示锚地位置、船舶停靠方式;通过几何对象可视化进行导助航信息的动态展示。实验结果表明,该系统能够很好地解决船舶雾天通航因能见度低所造成的滞航问题,引导船舶航行和定位。     

Aroundplot: Focus+context interface for off-screen objects in 3D environments

In exploring 3D environments from a first-person viewpoint, the narrow field-of-view makes it difficult to search for an off-screen object, a task that becomes even harder if the user is looking through the small screen of a mobile phone. This paper presents Aroundplot, a novel focus+context interface for providing multiple location cues for off-screen objects in an immersive 3D environment. One part of this technique is a mapping method from 3D spherical coordinates to 2D orthogonal fisheye, which tackles the problems of existing 3D location cue displays such as occlusion among the cues and discordance with the human frame of reference. The other part is a dynamic magnification method that magnifies the context in the direction the view is moving to alleviate the distortion of the orthogonal fisheye and thus to support precise movement. In an evaluation, the participants could find the target object for a given location cue faster and more accurately with Aroundplot than with a top-down 2D radar. They were more accurate with Aroundplot than with a 3D arrow cluster when the number of objects was large; however, accuracy with a small number of objects and the search speed with any number of objects were not significantly different.     

Applications of digital image warping in surveillance and navigation

Variable scale displays which combine a highly detailed representation of regions of interest with a less detailed representation of their context can be effective visualisation aids. This paper presents a concise review of the principles of conformal digital image warpings that can be used to construct variable scale displays like global fisheye views or multifocal image representations (a `looking glass' effect). It is argued that a backward warping transform is most suitable for this purpose. Pilot studies indicate that these variable scale displays may serve to optimize observer performance in surveillance and navigation tasks.     

Large displays enhance optical flow cues and narrow the gender gap in 3-D virtual navigation

OBJECTIVE: Existing reports suggest that males significantly outperform females in navigating 3-D virtual environments. Although researchers have recognized that this may be attributable to males and females possessing different spatial abilities, most work has attempted to reduce the gender gap by providing more training for females. In this paper, we explore using large displays to narrow the gender gap within these tasks. BACKGROUND: While evaluating various interaction techniques, we found that large displays affording wider fields of view seemed to improve virtual navigation performance in general and, additionally, to narrow the gender gap that existed on standard desktop displays. METHOD: We conducted two experiments (32 and 22 participants) exploring the individual contributions of display and geometric fields of view to the observed effects as well as isolating factors explaining performance increases seen on the large displays. RESULTS: We show that wider fields of view on large displays not only increase performance of all users on average but also benefit females to such a degree as to allow them to perform as well as males do. We further demonstrate that these benefits can be attributed to better optical flow cues offered by the large displays. CONCLUSION: These findings provide a significant contribution, including recommendations for the improved presentation of 3-D environments, backed by empirical data demonstrating performance benefits during navigation tasks. APPLICATION. Results can be used to design systems that narrow the gender gap in domains such as teleoperation and virtual environments for entertainment, virtual training, or information visualization.     

基于面图标的三维对称张量场可视化研究

现有的三维对称张量场可视化的面图标方法,仅表现了张量场的某一特征向量场在面图标上的方向信息,而没有表现出特征向量场的大小,基于此,提出了在面图标上通过绘制三维等值线及利用颜色属性来表现特征向量场的大小信息,这样,面图标就将特征向量场的方向和大小信息同时表现出来,从而进一步完善了三维对称张量场的面图标方法,更全面地揭示了张量场位于空间曲面上的信息。     

二维视图到三维几何模型转换中的BOX显示法

提出一种从二维视图到三维几何模型转换中视图的BOX显示方法,该方法可以将分离识别后的视图自动按照视图投影的方向放置,即将单一的二维视图平面向多投影面转换,建立视图之间的投影对应关系,从而直观地表达实体的投影视图,帮助用户进行形体想象。给出了两个视图BOX显示的例子。     

Visual station keeping for floating robots in unstructured environments

This paper describes the use of vision for navigation of mobile robots floating in 3D space. The problem addressed is that of automatic station keeping relative to some naturally textured environmental region. Due to the motion disturbances in the environment (currents), these tasks are important to keep the vehicle stabilized relative to an external reference frame. Assuming short range regions in the environment, vision can be used for local navigation, so that no global positioning methods are required. A planar environmental region is selected as a visual landmark and tracked throughout a monocular video sequence. For a camera moving in 3D space, the observed deformations of the tracked image region are according to planar projective transformations and reveal information about the robot relative position and orientation w.r.t. the landmark. This information is then used in a visual feedback loop so as to realize station keeping. Both the tracking system and the control design are discussed. Two robotic platforms are used for experimental validation, namely an indoor aerial blimp and a remote operated underwater vehicle. Results obtained from these experiments are described.