Effect of particle size distribution on pile tip resistance in calcareous sand in the geotechnical centrifuge

Until recently, the micro mechanical origins of soil behaviour have remained illusive, but it is now known that that the constitutive behaviour of a soil is largely determined by its particle size distribution. This paper examines the specific boundary problem associated with the penetration of a model pile into two different gradings of dry calcareous sand in a geotechnical centrifuge, in order to establish the effect of the inclusion of fine particles on the pile end bearing resistance. The first grading of sand comprised particles smaller than 0.5 mm; the second grading contained particles of nominal size d such that 0.15 mm < d < 0.5 mm. Each test was performed on each of two samples of each grading. Tip resistance was observed to rise to a peak at shallow depths, and then fall; a micro mechanical explanation is presented for this instability. Following the centrifuge tests, particles were retrieved from the centres of the soil samples, where the pile had previously been driven, for subsequent particle size analysis. It was found that insignificant crushing had occurred in the sand retrieved from depths less than the depth of peak resistance, but that significant crushing had occurred in the sand retrieved from greater depths. The peak in tip resistance was a factor of two larger for the well-graded sand, but the ultimate tip resistance at greater depths was found to be approximately independent of the initial particle size distribution for all four tests. A micro mechanical explanation is also proposed for this observation. Received: 11 November 1999     

DEM simulation on the one-dimensional compression behavior of various shaped crushable granular materials

In order to investigate the effects of particle shape on the compression behavior of granular materials, a series of simulations was conducted using a two-dimensional discrete element method employing moment springs. Fracturable granular assemblies were constructed from particles of the same shape and size. The range of possible particle shapes includes disk, ellipse and hexagon, with different aspect ratios. Simulations of single particle crushing tests on elliptical particles showed that crushing could be classified into three types: cleavage destruction, bending fracture and edge abrasion, depending on the manner of compression. A series of simulations of one-dimensional compression tests was then conducted on six types of crushable particle assemblies; the three types of crushing mentioned above were also observed, but their rates of occurrence depended on the particle shape. Cleavage destruction was mainly observed with circular and elliptical particles; bending fracture was observed only with elongated particles; edge abrasion was frequently observed with angular particles. Despite the difference in crushing type, all samples, when subjected to intense compression, converged to a critical grading with unique void ratio, grain size distribution and aspect ratio, with a similar distribution of number of contact points.     

DEM of triaxial tests on crushable sand

This paper presents simulations of high-pressure triaxial shear tests on a crushable sand. The discrete element method is used, featuring a large number of particles and avoiding the use of agglomerates. The triaxial model features a flexible membrane, therefore allowing realistic deformation, and a simple breakage mechanism is implemented using the octahedral shear stress induced in the particles. The simulations show that particle crushing is essential to replicate the realistic behaviour of sand (in particular the volumetric contraction) in high-pressure shear tests. The general effects of crushing during shear are explored, including its effects on critical states, and the influence of particle strength and confining pressure on the degree of crushing are discussed.     

DEM modeling of shear bands in crushable and irregularly shaped granular materials

A method of modeling convex or concave polygonal particles is proposed. DEM simulations of shear banding in crushable and irregularly shaped granular materials are presented in this work. Numerical biaxial tests are conducted on an identical particle assembly with varied particle crushability. The particle crushing is synchronized with the development of macroscopic stress, and the evolution of particle size distribution can be characterized by fractal dimension. The shear banding pattern is sensitive to particle crushability, where one shear band is clearly visible in the uncrushable assembly and X-shaped shear bands are evident in the crushable assembly. There are fewer branches of strong force chains and weak confinement inside the shear bands, which cause the particles inside the shear bands to become vulnerable to breakage. The small fragments with larger rotation magnitudes inside the shear bands form ball-bearing to promote the formation of shear bands. While there are extensive particle breakages occurring, the ball-bearing mechanism will lubricate whole assembly. With the increase of particle crushability the shear band formation is suppressed and the shear resistance of the assembly is reduced. The porosity inside the shear bands are related to the particle crushability.     

DEM simulations of stiff and soft materials with crushable particles: an application of expanded perlite as a soft granular material

The mechanical behavior of granular materials is largely affected by particle breakage. Physical and mechanical properties of granular materials, such as grain size distribution, deviatoric and volumetric behavior, compressibility and mobilized friction angle are affected by particle crushing. This paper focuses on the evolution of the above mentioned characteristics using the Discrete Element Method (DEM). Behaviors of stiff and soft materials are studied using well established crushing criteria. Results from simulations indicate that stiff materials, have a typical fractal distribution of particle size, which is dominant when confining pressure increases. The fractal characteristic parameter of grain size effect is discussed. Evolution of shear stresses and volumetric strains during shearing are also predicted and analyzed. Expanded perlite, selected as a soft material, is investigated in terms of shear and volumetric behavior. For perlite, triaxial compression tests and corresponding DEM simulations are also performed. Results show good agreement between experiments and simulations and support the fact that the DEM can be considered as a useful tool to predict the behavior of crushable granular materials.     

Discrete element simulation of dynamic behaviour of partially saturated sand

The discrete element method (DEM) together with the finite element method (FEM) in LS-DYNA was employed to investigate the dynamic behaviour of sand under impact loading. In this approach, the partially saturated sand was modelled in DEM with capillary forces being taken into account through an implicit capillary contact model, while other solids were simulated using FEM. A slump test was first performed with dry sand to calibrate the contact parameters in DEM. Low velocity impact tests were then conducted to investigate the effect of water saturation on the shape and height of sand piles after impact, and to validate the simulations. It was found in the experiments that an increasing water saturation (in the range between 10 and 30 %) affected the height of sand pile for a given drop height due to an increasing cohesion between particles. The simulations captured the experimental ejecta patterns and sand pile height. Finally, a low confinement split Hopkinson pressure bar test from earlier literature was modelled; the DEM–FEM simulations could reproduce the trends of experimentally observed stress–strain curves of partially saturated sand under high strain rate loading, indicating that it was feasible to model dynamic behaviour of dry and wet sand with low saturation (<20 %) in LS-DYNA; however, a number of questions remain open about the effect of grain shape, grain crushing and viscosity.     

Blast response and failure analysis of pile foundations subjected to surface explosion

This paper presents the response of pile foundations to ground shocks induced by surface explosion using fully coupled and non-linear dynamic computer simulation techniques together with different material models for the explosive, air, soil and pile. It uses the Arbitrary Lagrange Euler coupling formulation with proper state material parameters and equations. Blast wave propagation in soil, horizontal pile deformation and pile damage are presented to facilitate failure evaluation of piles. Effects of end restraint of pile head and the number and spacing of piles within a group on their blast response and potential failure are investigated. The techniques developed and applied in this paper and its findings provide valuable information on the blast response and failure evaluation of piles and will provide guidance in their future analysis and design.     

DEM of triaxial tests on crushable cemented sand

Using the discrete element method, triaxial simulations of cemented sand consisting of crushable particles are presented. The triaxial model used features a flexible membrane, allowing realistic deformation to occur, and cementation is modelled using inter-particle bonds. The effects of particle crushing are explored, as is the influence of cementation on the behaviour of the soil. An insight to the effects that cementation has on the degree of crushing is presented.     

DEM analysis of the size effects on the behavior of crushable granular materials

Four sets of individual-particle crushing tests were carried out on sandstone grains of different size with geometric similarity. The tensile strength was analyzed using Weibull statistics, and the size-hardening law was obtained. The experimental data also validated that the Weibull modulus is independent of the grain size. Considering both the shear and tensile fracture modes of the particle, the Mohr–Coulomb model with a tension cut-off was employed as the fracture criterion of a single particle. When the particle stresses satisfied the fracture criterion, three new fragments modeled by the ‘clump’ were generated to replace the broken particle. Nine spheres with four different sizes were released from the clump and allowed to continue crushing if the fragment stresses fulfilled the criterion again. Two polydisperse assemblies with different particle sizes but same initial fabrics were prepared. DEM simulations of triaxial shear tests with different grain sizes were carried out on the crushable granular material with varied confining pressures. The simulated stress–strain–dilation responses were in agreement with the experimental observations. The macro–micro responses of the two samples, including the stress–strain–dilation behavior, the particle crushing, and the normal contact force distribution, were discussed in detail. The cause of the size effect on the shear strength and deformation was thoroughly investigated through a variety of mechanism demonstrations and micromechanical analysis.     

Discrete Element Method Analysis of Railtrack Ballast Degradation during Cyclic Loading

Ballast materials forming part of railway structures are subjected to cyclic loads. As a result of these loads, ballast densification, aggregate degradation, and lateral spread of the ballast material underneath the ties takes place inducing permanent deformations on the railways. Maintenance and rehabilitation costs of railtracks due to problems related with ballast performance are substantial, and millions of dollars are annually spent around the world in these activities. Understanding the crushable behavior of railtrack ballast could lead to the design of better railways that will reduce these costs. This paper presents the results of two discrete element method simulations intended to study the effect of crushing on the behavior of a simulated track ballast material forming part of a simulated track section. Even though the two simulations consider the same idealized material, crushing was allowed only in one simulation. The simulated track sections were subjected to a cyclic load, and the values of permanent deformation as a function of number of cycles were recorded. The obtained results showed that the induced permanent deformation strongly increased when considering particle crushing even though only a few particles were broken. Moreover, it was found that crushing concentrated underneath the simulated sleepers. Snap shots of the track sections are presented allowing a visualization of the evolution of crushing.     

DEM investigations of failure mode of sands under oedometric loading

It will be practically useful to explore the evolutions of the failure modes of sand grains within a sand specimen subject to compression for the particle breakage research. This paper attempts to deal with this challenge by conducting a discrete element method (DEM) simulation study on oedometric compression of two kinds of sands (spherical and non-spherical particles). In this study, particle morphologies reconstructed by the spherical harmonic (SH) analysis were created using the agglomerate method, and the micro-parameters used to define the contact model and the properties of walls and balls were adopted based on the single particle crushing tests. The effects of particle shape on the crushing behavior of granular materials and on the evolutions of failure modes of sand grains were captured, and the experimental data was used to evaluate the feasibility and reliability of the proposed DEM modelling strategy. The simulation results show that particle shape affects not only the number, type and orientation of cracks but also the evolution of the particle failure modes. The failure mode of chipping is the most common way to crush for both spherical and non-spherical particles. The particles that have less aspect ratio, sphericity and convexity are more likely to experience the failure mode of comminution. These findings shed light on the key role of particle shape in the investigation of the failure mode of sand grains and facilitate a better understanding of grain-scale behavior of granular materials.     

DEM-aided direct shear testing of granular sands incorporating realistic particle shape

Discrete element method (DEM) of granular sands incorporating the effect of the realistic particle shape has been an important issue for many years. In this context, this study proposed a novel framework for the generation of realistic-shaped particles of natural sands in 3D DEM simulations. The generation framework mainly included micro-CT (μCT) scanning of sand particles, image processing of μCT images, spherical harmonic reconstruction of the particle surface, and clump generation by the overlapping multisphere clump method (OMCM) in DEM simulations. To validate the accuracy of OMCM, the volume and inertia moment of the clump were carefully investigated, and a set of optimized generation parameters was then determined to ensure the accuracy of the clump and the limit number of the filling spheres. Based on the generation framework, a clump sample with realistic particle shapes and a corresponding sphere sample were generated to conduct a series of direct shear testing. The simulation results demonstrated that the realistic particle shape highly increases the particle interlocking rather than the anisotropic intensity of strong contact force chains, and in turn enhances the shear resistance and the shear-induced dilation of the sands. It was also found that the inter-particle contacts of the clump sample have higher friction mobilization than that of the sphere sample, which identified the micromechanism of the shape effect on the particle interlocking.     

DX桩桩周土应力场分布的模型试验研究

通过室内小比尺的模型试验,可以进一步为确定DX桩沉降计算公式提供必要的依据。在小型模型试验箱中,通过采用杠杆加砝码的装置对22 mm桩径的DX桩在砂土中进行研究,测定单桩的桩顶荷载-桩顶位移曲线,确定承载力,并与相同情况下的直孔桩进行对比;同时,利用微型土压力盒测定土中应力变化,研究荷载在土中的传递规律。试验结果表明,DX桩的承载力及沉降特性明显优于直孔桩;承力盘在上部和下部时,DX桩尽管承载力相差不大,但是盘在下部时会增大桩端附近土体的应力;两个承力盘的DX桩,两盘受力比较一致,且盘受力的影响范围,在竖     

基于现场试验的超长桩端阻力承载性状研究

为弄清大直径超长桩端阻力承载特性,基于15个场地中共32根桩的现场试验资料,采用作图法、归一化处理法、数学模型拟合法研究了大直径超长桩端阻力随桩端沉降的发挥性状。发现,桩端阻力随桩端沉降的变化主要有3种类型,即类型一(近似直线增加型)、类型二(转折点后增幅大为变缓的双折线增加型)、类型三(转折点后增幅几乎为0的双折线增加型),3种类型代表着大直径超长桩的破坏型式大致分为类型三代表的桩端刺入破坏和类型一、类型二代表的桩端整体剪切或局部剪切破坏;玻耳兹曼数学模型拟合桩端阻力-桩端沉降归一化曲线的效果好,相关系数R2达0.95以上;桩端阻力达到极限状态时的桩端沉降值至少在0.444d―123.433d之间,显示超长桩端阻力极限状态时的桩端沉降基本上无定值,但大部分在1.00mm―40.00mm之间;注浆后的端阻力为注浆前的2.5倍以上。结果表明,超长桩的端阻力不能被忽略,应加强研究,应充分利用它。     

Strength of non-spherical particles with anisotropic geometries under triaxial and shearing loading configurations

This paper presents a study on the macroscopic shear strength characteristics of granular assemblies with three- dimensional complex-shaped particles. Different assemblies are considered, with both isotropic and anisotropic particle geometries. The study is conducted using the discrete element method (DEM), with so-called sphero-polyhedral particles, and simulations of mechanical true triaxial tests for a range of Lode angles and confining pressures. The observed mathematical failure envelopes are investigated in the Haigh–Westergaard stress space, as well as on the deviatoric-mean pressure plane. It is verified that the DEM with non-spherical particles produces results that are qualitatively similar to experimental data and previous numerical results obtained with spherical elements. The simulations reproduce quite well the shear strength of assemblies of granular media, such as higher strength during compression than during extension. In contrast, by introducing anisotropy at the particle level, the shear strength parameters are greatly affected, and an isotropic failure criterion is no longer valid. It is observed that the strength of the anisotropic assembly depends on the direction of loading, as observed for real soils. Finally simulations on a virtual shearing test show how the velocity profile within the shear band is also affected by the grain’s shape.     

The influence of particle-size distribution on critical state behavior of spherical and non-spherical particle assemblies

This paper presents an investigation into the effects of particle-size distribution on the critical state behavior of granular materials using discrete element method (DEM) simulations on both spherical and non-spherical particle assemblies. A series of triaxial test DEM simulations examine the influence of particle-size distribution (PSD) and particle shape, which were independently assessed in the analyses presented. Samples were composed of particles with varying shapes characterized by overall regularity (OR) and different PSDs. The samples were subjected to the axial compression through different loading schemes: constant volume, constant mean effective stress, and constant lateral stress. All samples were sheared to large strains to ensure that a critical state was reached. Both the macroscopic and microscopic behaviors in these tests are discussed here within the framework of the anisotropic critical state theory. It is shown that both OR and PSD may affect the response of the granular assemblies in terms of the stress–strain relations, dilatancy, and critical state behaviors. For a given PSD, both the shear strength and fabric norm decrease with an increase in OR. The critical state angle of shearing resistance is highly dependent on particle shape. In terms of PSD, uniformly distributed assemblies mobilize higher shear strength and experience more dilative responses than specimens with a greater variation of particle sizes. The position of the critical state line in the e–p′ space is also affected by PSD. However, the effects of PSD on critical strength and evolution of fabric are negligible. These findings highlight the importance of particle shape and PSD that should be included in the development of constitutive models for granular materials.     

DX桩的施工特点及其效果

DX桩作为一种新型的变截面桩型具有施工简单、方便、快捷等优点。施工时,只须在钻（冲）成孔后,增加一道旋挖挤扩成盘的工序,就能形成由桩身、承力盘、桩端共同受力的形式。DX桩不但具有较高的承载力,还能很好地控制桩基的沉降变形。某高速公路桥梁桩基的静载荷试验表明,DX桩的承载力是同尺寸直孔桩的2倍多,而DX桩沉降则不到直孔桩的一半;同时,试验中DX桩锚桩的上拔量不足1 mm,在抗拔性能方面,DX桩也有很大的优越性。     

层状粘性土及砂土地基中静力压桩连续贯入的数值模拟

总结分析了软硬交互层状土中静压桩沉桩阻力的变化规律。为了使ABAQUS模拟层状土地基,特别是既有粘性土层又有砂土层的层状地基中静压桩贯入,分段采用不同本构关系模型,即在粘性土层中采用修正剑桥模型,砂土层中采用扩展D-P模型。同时,采用多项措施对层状土地基土体初始应力进行平衡。结合工程实例,模拟计算了不同土层性质差异明显、软土中有硬土夹层的层状土中静压桩连续贯入过程,得出了贯入过程中沉桩阻力随深度变化曲线,反映了通过硬土层时桩周应力和沉桩阻力的突变现象,与实测资料较吻合。研究结果有助于静压桩沉桩可能性分析以及挤土效应分析。     

某高层建筑大直径嵌岩钻孔灌注桩的承载力分析

大直径嵌岩钻孔灌注桩已被越来越多的高层建筑所采用。如何根据没有达到极限荷载的试桩资料确定单桩轴向承载力是一个很现实的问题。本文通过分析软岩中两根大直径嵌岩钻灌注桩的荷载——沉降曲线(未达到极限荷载),利用斜率倒数法和导数图法分别推算了单桩承载力,并与采用JGJ4-80规范中公式的计算结果进行了对比,吻合较好。最后简单讨论了这种类型桩的承载机理、桩侧阻力和桩端阻力的分配比例,本文认为,对于桩侧和桩端阻力应当采用不同的安全系数。     

Comparative discrete element modelling of a vibratory sieving process with spherical and rounded polyhedron particles

Current spherical particle usage in discrete element modelling (DEM) is not able to accurately reflect the particle shape effect in some specific industrial applications. This study specifically investigated the effect of particle shape in discrete element modelling of a vibratory sieving process, with the focus on comparing results from spherical and non-spherical modelling methods. The particle size distribution of an iron ore material was initially obtained experimentally through vibratory sieving tests. An identical process was replicated in DEM with both spheres and non-spherical particles, and resulting particle size distributions were subsequently compared against the experimental results. A rounded polyhedron shape was utilised to calibrate and generate non-spherical particles based on a 2D particle shape characterisation process. Modelling results suggested that the rounded polyhedron method was able to accurately reflect the particle-sieve contacts without excessive rolling resistance tuning, which was required by the spheres.