A new consequence of Simpson's paradox: Stable cooperation in one-shot prisoner's dilemma from populations of individualistic learners.

Theories of choice in economics typically assume that interacting agents act individualistically and maximize their own utility. Specifically, game theory proposes that rational players should defect in one-shot prisoners' dilemmas (PD). Defection also appears to be the inevitable outcome for agents who learn by reinforcement of past choices, because whatever the other player does, defection leads to greater reinforcement on each trial. In a computer simulation and 4 experiments, the authors show that, apparently paradoxically, when players' choices are correlated by an exogenous factor (here, the cooperativeness of the specific PD chosen), people obtain greater average reinforcement for cooperating, which can sustain cooperation. This effect arises from a well-known statistical paradox, Simpson's paradox. The authors speculate that this effect may be relevant to aspects of real-world human cooperative behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The prisoner's dilemma: game theory and the therapeutic alliance

My aim in this paper is to describe how the therapeutic alliance evolves during psychoanalytic treatment. Lindgren has shown that a coevolutionary process can optimize the level of cooperation by the players in the game of prisoner's dilemma. This level is reached when strategies for recognizing reliable patterns in the sequence of moves by the other player have evolved. These are multiple memory strategies. Lindgren's work suggests that the analytic process must have sufficient time for multiple memory strategies to emerge if it is to achieve the necessary level of trust for an effective therapeutic alliance to develop.     

Diminished cooperativeness of psychopaths in a prisoner's dilemma game yields higher rewards.

Maladaptive social behavior is one of the defining characteristics of psychopathic personality disorder. Nevertheless, maladaptive social behavior has only rarely been observed among psychopaths in experimentally controlled situations. The authors assessed the behavior of criminal psychopaths from high-security psychiatric hospitals in a computer simulation of a social dilemma situation. The psychopaths showed a markedly higher proneness to competitive (i.e., noncooperative) behavior than did healthy adults from the general population. The odds ratio between defection and being a psychopath was estimated at 7.86 in the sample. The probability to choose selfish instead of cooperative behavior was significantly linked to the following subscales of the Psychopathy Personality Inventory-Revised (S. O. Lilienfeld & M. R. Widows, 2005): rebellious nonconformity, Machiavellian egocentricity, and the total score. On average, the psychopathic participants accumulated higher gain and more strongly exploited their counterpart than did the healthy participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Communication, commitment, and cooperation in social dilemma.

Intragroup communication promotes cooperation in social dilemmas. Two explanations are plausible: discussion may (1) enhance feelings of group identity or (2) induce commitments to cooperate. Some remedies for social dilemmas (like group communication) may be subclassified as public welfare remedies (of which enhanced group identity is an example) vs cooperation-contingent remedies (of which commitment is an example). The efficacy of a cooperative act for enhancing the collective welfare should moderate remedies of the former but not the latter type. An experiment, using 441 female undergraduates, is reported in which group communication and the efficacy of cooperation were manipulated. As expected if communication induced commitments, but contrary to the group identity explanation, efficacy did not moderate the effect of group discussion. Other analyses provided more direct evidence that group members made and honored commitments to cooperate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of level of cooperative choice by the other player on choices in a prisoner's dilemma game. Part II.

This study tests whether very high (or very low) cooperation by the other, sequential change in level of cooperation by the other, and degree of S's "flexible ethicality" will influence level of cooperative choice by 40 male and 40 female human Ss. The design is a mixed analysis of variance type with 3 independent and 2 nonindependent sources of variance. The main findings were that cooperative choice is influenced by a very high level of cooperation by the other, but even more by a sequence of low to high cooperation by the other. Flexible ethicality influences choice but in a complex association with sex and sequence. Essentially, then, communication is possible through reiteration of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of level of cooperative choice by the other player on choices in a prisoner's dilemma game: Part I.

In a Prisoner's Dilemma type game, Ss (male and female students) were asked to make repeated choice between 2 alternatives, R and B, where R is presumably the cooperative and B the competitive choice. While believing that they were playing persons of the same sex, Ss actually played a simulated partner who, for ? of the group, chose 83% random R and, for the other ?, 83% random B for 30 trials. Thereafter for 60 trials, the simulated partner chose according to a strategy of 83% matching, 17% mismatching the choices of S. The purpose of this procedure was to determine the effects of initial level of simulated cooperation on S's own level of cooperation. The results failed to demonstrate that the level of simulated cooperation employed functioned to determine choice by S. Ss had been stratified according to a test of character which failed to predict choice. However, a 2nd scoring formula employed on this test did significantly distinguish the amount of R choice emitted by S and deserves further examination. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orbital venous anomalies. A long-standing dilemma

Chronic pancreas transplant rejection with enteric exocrine drainage can lead to significant long-term complications. We report a case of a 47-year-old male insulin-dependent diabetic who survived the complications of peripancreatic abscess, enterocutaneous fistula, and arterioenteric fistula related to pancreas transplantation. To avoid these long-term complications, we now recommend elective removal of nonfunctioning, enterically drained pancreas allografts.     

A field experiment on rumor transmission and distortion.

"Current notions of the determinants of rumor spread and distortion were tested in a field experiment… . Evidence is presented indicating that under conditions of wide-spread cognitive unclarity there is far more transmission of a planted rumor and far more speculation involving new rumors when the issue is important than when it is relatively unimportant… . In distinct contrast to expectations created by studies using the technique of serial reproduction, there is absolutely no indication of distortion of the planted rumor." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching social psychology: A Canadian dilemma.

Criticizes the American dominance of Canadian social psychology. It is argued that many American models and perspectives are only partially relevant to Canada. The exclusive use of American textbooks is also criticized; these texts are considered to incorrectly interpret Canadian phenomena as directly analagous to American. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensating people with AIDS: A different perspective.

187 undergraduates read a newspaper editorial (C. Sosklone, 1994) and answered questions about compensating people with AIDS. The editorial noted that during the early years of the AIDS epidemic (1982–85) the Canadian government received expert advice on how to prevent HIV transmission yet failed to act on these recommendations. Although 80% of Ss agreed that the government should be held accountable for this inaction, only 45% agreed that all people who were infected with HIV from 1982 to 1985 deserved financial compensation. Gay men were considered least worthy of compensation, whereas infants and blood-product recipients were considered most worthy. Ss who supported broad-based compensation tended to be less blameful of people with AIDS who contracted HIV through homosexual contact or injection-drug use. Relatively low levels of blame were identified among older participants and those who were less authoritarian. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A crucial experiment resubmitted.

Presents the "experiment" conducted by the prophet Elijah in 1 Kings 18:17–40 in which the priests of Baal and Elijah each sacrificed a bull and invoked the name of their respective god, but only Elijah's god responded. Satirical comments of 3 "reviewers" of psychological articles are included to show the ethical and methodological issues that might be raised if such an experiment were conducted today. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of computers on professional practice: A survey of current practices and attitudes.

Surveyed 227 practicing psychologists to explore the impact of computers on the everyday practice of psychology and practitioners' attitudes toward specific uses of computers. Whereas more than half of the respondents reported using computers in their practices, most restricted their use to clerical applications. Few practitioners used their computer for more clinical applications. Reasons most frequently reported for not using computers related to lacking the necessary skills and experience and to financial considerations. Overall, practitioners had positive attitudes toward a variety of specific applications of computers. Implications of these findings for facilitating the appropriate use of computers by practitioners are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When laws and values conflict: A dilemma for psychologists.

Results from a questionnaire completed by 60 senior psychologists show that a majority had intentionally broken a law or formal ethical principle in light of a client's welfare or other deeper value. Such instances include refusing to report child abuse, illegally divulging confidential information, engaging in sex with a client, and refusing to make legally mandated warnings regarding dangerous clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Energy policymaking and Edney's dilemma.

The naiveté of J. J. Edney's (see record 1980-09467-001) recommendations for ameliorating resource crises is underscored by the almost complete lack of applicability of his proposals in a policy formation sense. Edney's proposals are viewed from the perspective of scientists and legislative personnel who develop national energy policy. If psychologists are to become more involved in program and policy development activities, the discipline must propose solutions to human and environmental problems that are useful, can be implemented, and can be evaluated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Systematic cooperation between driving schools and parents in driver education, an experiment

The overall purpose of the experiment is to study the effects of various educational changes as a measure for preventing accidents among young drivers. The hypothesis is that accident risks among young drivers, normally educated by private instructors, i.e. parents, will be reduced if complementary professional education and support are provided. To analyze the effect of this combination of private and complementary professional driver education compared to solely private instruction, nearly 2,000 young people, 17 years old, were divided into two groups. The experimental group was given professionally supported education and the control group was educated by parents or other private teachers. The changes comprised three parts, systematic cooperation between driving school and parents, "commentary driving" to improve scanning behaviour, and special practice to help the learner experience his own limitations in driving skill. The results based on self-reported accident show negative effects during the first year and positive effects of the changes during the second year after licensing. When the two years were added, no significant change was found. Questionnaire data in subjective skill and driving style showed small changes, the experimental group being a little more careful and a little less self-confident. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive overload and the learners' limited capacity to benefit from the changes during the first of the two years.     

Reward, punishment, and cooperation: A meta-analysis.

How effective are rewards (for cooperation) and punishment (for noncooperation) as tools to promote cooperation in social dilemmas or situations when immediate self-interest and longer term collective interest conflict? What variables can promote the impact of these incentives? Although such questions have been examined, social and behavioral scientists provide different answers. To date, there is no theoretical and/or quantitative review of rewards and punishments as incentives for cooperation in social dilemmas. Using a novel interdependence-theoretic framework, we propose that rewards and punishments should both promote cooperation, and we identify 2 variables—cost of incentives and source of incentives—that are predicted to magnify the effectiveness of these incentives in promoting cooperation. A meta-analysis involving 187 effect sizes revealed that rewards and punishments exhibited a statistically equivalent positive effect on cooperation (d = 0.51 and 0.70, respectively). The effectiveness of incentives was stronger when the incentives were costly to administer, compared to free. Centralization of incentives did not moderate the effect size. Punishments were also more effective during iterated dilemmas when participants continued to interact in the same group, compared to both (a) iterated dilemmas with reassignment to a new group after each trial and (b) one-shot dilemmas. We also examine several other potential moderators, such as iterations, partner matching, group size, country, and participant payment. We discuss broad conclusions, consider implications for theory, and suggest directions for future research on rewards and punishment in social dilemmas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychology's dilemma: A proposal for its resolution.

School psychology (SP) is at an impasse: Sharp differences exist within the field about its nature and about entry level for its independent practice. This article proposes that SP be acknowledged as a profession apart from professional psychology and that a revision of the specialty concerned with the professional practice of psychology in education be undertaken within the American Psychological Association. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)