On memories of childhood abuse: a phenomenological study

OBJECTIVE: To explore the phenomenon of memories and reported recovered memories of childhood abuse, and to examine ways in which clients and therapists assess the veridicality of such memories. METHOD: Qualitative methodology utilizing phenomenological inquiry. Within the context of a wider study exploring perceptions of helpful and unhelpful factors in the therapeutic process, a sub-sample of 36 in-depth interviews with clients, therapists, and therapists who considered themselves to have been abused as children included a focus on abuse-memory experiences. Data were analyzed according to Grounded Theory principles. RESULTS: Participants described six types of abuse-memory experiences. The most frequently reported type was where abuse was known about but kept "out of mind." The six types can be collapsed into three main categories: (1) continual knowledge of abuse (69.5%); (2) unexpected abuse-memories recovered from a prior state of partial knowledge of abuse (16.5%); and (3) abuse-memories recovered from a prior state of no knowledge of abuse (30%). Independent corroboration of recovered memories was rare; and criteria which were reportedly used to assess the veridicality of such memories were problematic when viewed in the light of cognitive psychology research on memory processes. CONCLUSION: It seems that most people who were abused as children have always had continual knowledge of this, although it is often only much later than many connect problems in adult life with the consequences of such abuse. People also experience the recovery of memories of abuse about which they were previously unaware. There is a danger that the specific controversy surrounding "false memories" may become over-generalized contributing to increased public scepticism about the prevalence and negative impact of child abuse, and the potential effectiveness of appropriate therapeutic services.     

Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Clinicians' practices and beliefs.

The issue of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has stirred up a great deal of controversy in the field of psychology and in the public media. Recent court trials and television specials suggest that recovered and false memory cases occur often. Clinicians completed a survey designed to determine the prevalence of recovered memories for CSA in their clinical practices and to assess whether the recovered memory controversy had affected their treatment of female CSA victims. Despite the publicity the debate over memories of CSA has attracted, few cases of so-called recovered memory were reported. Even fewer cases of so-called false memory were reported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training professional psychologists to treat survivors of childhood sexual abuse.

Although psychological services for adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse are greatly needed, and professional interest is strong, formal training in this area has been limited. This article outlines a model, synthesized from the writings of experts on abuse trauma, that integrates the diverse knowledge and skills required to provide effective psychological services to survivors. A doctoral practicum placement and internship rotation designed to provide intensive preparation for clinical work with survivors is described to illustrate how the model can be applied to organize and structure training in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Searching for the middle ground in clinical practice.

This paper briefly examines the debate regarding adult memories of childhood sexual abuse and suggests a reasoned clinical response. The perspective related to "false memories" of abuse, as well as that of advocates of recovered memories, are considered. It is concluded that although there is considerable rhetoric on this topic, there is little definitive information to support one position or the other. A middle ground perspective, that recognizes both the legitimacy of childhood abuse and its negative influences, as well as the possibility of poor clinical practice leading to false reports of abuse, is advocated. Implications of this middle ground perspective for clinical practice, training and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The experience of "forgetting" childhood abuse: A national survey of psychologists.

A national sample of psychologists were asked whether they had been abused as children and, if so, whether they had ever forgotten some or all of the abuse. Almost a quarter of the sample (23.9%) reported childhood abuse, and of those, approximately 40% reported a period of forgetting some or all of the abuse. The major findings were that (1) both sexual and nonsexual abuse were subject to periods of forgetting; (2) the most frequently reported factor related to recall was being in therapy; (3) approximately one half of those who reported forgetting also reported corroboration of the abuse; and (4) reported forgetting was not related to gender or age of the respondent but was related to severity of the abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychologists' beliefs and clinical characteristics: Judging the veracity of childhood sexual abuse memories.

In recent years, concerns about the credibility of memories associated with childhood sexual abuse have prompted researchers and the public to scrutinize therapists' role in evaluating and treating patients reporting abuse histories. A national survey of 1008 psychologists was conducted examining factors associated with therapists' judgments and treatment decisions. Respondents were more likely to believe sexual abuse had occurred when the memory was continuous, the age of the memory first recalled was greater than 2 years, the memory was vivid, and the perpetrator was male. Moreover, therapists' judgments were influenced by their personal beliefs. Implications for clinical practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symptomatic clients and memories of childhood abuse: What the trauma and child sexual abuse literature tells us.

In recent years, the delayed recall of memories of childhood abuse has been the subject of increasingly heated societal debate. The American Psychological Association Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse was charged with reviewing relevant literature and making recommendations for future research directions as well as for clinical training and practice. This article reviews the trauma and child sexual abuse literatures by examining the scope of the problem and placing the current controversy into its broader social/historical context. It then provides a review of selected literature on the following topics: (1) the nature and consequences of trauma, particularly with regard to its potential effect on memory, and with special attention to trauma occurring during childhood; (2) child sexual abuse as a unique and potentially very traumatic form of interpersonal victimization; (3) dissociation and its functions both as a psychological defense against the impact of trauma and as the mental mechanism that most likely accounts for the amnesia and hypermnesia commonly experienced by traumatized individuals; and (4) memory in adults reporting a history of child sexual abuse, using available empirical data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse.

One hundred twenty-nine women with previously documented histories of sexual victimization in childhood were interviewed and asked detailed questions about their abuse histories to answer the question "Do people actually forget traumatic events such as child sexual abuse, and if so, how common is such forgetting?" A large proportion of the women (38%) did not recall the abuse that had been reported 17 years earlier. Women who were younger at the time of the abuse and those who were molested by someone they knew were more likely to have no recall of the abuse. The implications for research and practice are discussed. Long periods with no memory of abuse should not be regarded as evidence that the abuse did not occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recovered memories of childhood abuse: Is there an underlying professional consensus?

Despite the controversy regarding the existence, nature, and accuracy of false (recovered) memories, there is an apparent professional consensus regarding child abuse, the nature of human memory, standards for diagnosis and treatment of adults who have or may have lost memories of abuse, and the appropriate role of the psychotherapist in dealing with these issues. Support for the professional consensus comes from authorities on both sides of the memory debate, statements and position papers from professional associations, and surveys of psychologists. After presenting these consensus statements, the authors delineate some remaining areas of controversy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peculating psychologists: Fraud and abuse against Medicaid.

Investigated the records and views of 8 psychologists (mean age 56 yrs) who had been either criminally or administratively sanctioned for violations of laws governing the Medicaid program. Interviews with the Ss and with 40 state and federal officials involved in administrative and enforcement activities revealed that sanctioned psychologists were commonly charged with filing false claims, felt they were treated unfairly by the system, and resented the low reimbursement rates and paperwork involved with Medicaid. Almost all violators strongly denied personal blame for their behavior. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reconstructing memories of abuse: A theory-based approach.

Describes a process for reconstructing traumatic memories based on M. J. Horowitz's (1986) theory of stress response syndromes. Recovery from trauma requires that the emotions and imagery attached to the trauma be integrated into the victim's self structure. The history of intrusive symptoms can be used to develop a projective device to help the client anticipate the nature of the trauma. Ongoing intrusive experiences bring memory fragments to the surface that can be used to build the client's emotional tolerance. Cognitive restructuring can be started while the memories are still tentative, and the client can begin to develop coping skills and supportive relationships that will be needed as the memories return. Case materials illustrate the process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Final report of APA working group on investigation of memories of childhood abuse: A critical commentary.

This commentary evaluates the evidence presented by Alpert, Brown, and Courtois in the Final Report of the APA Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse (1996). The weaknesses in their assessment of evidence and their theoretical arguments go beyond those identified by Ornstein, Ceci, and Loftus. Historical and clinical data are uncritically overvalued, and empirical concepts (like state-dependent memory) are borrowed for explanatory purposes without appreciating the limits and inconsistencies in the underlying empirical research. An argument is advanced that clinical evidence can never be free of the influence of cherished beliefs and that some therapeutically recovered memories may reflect the cherished beliefs of clinicians who recover them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working with adult clients who may have experienced childhood abuse: Recommendations for assessment and practice.

The delayed memory debate has generated many questions about therapeutic practices that are likely to be beneficial and detrimental to clients. This article proposes components of optimal practice for working with adult clients who may have been abused as children. The recommendations are organized around the following themes: (a) competence, (b) assessment and treatment planning, (c) psychotherapy process and technique, (d) memory issues, (e) and ethics. The authors emphasize the importance of a collaborative therapeutic relationship and urge clinicians to proceed cautiously when encountering treatment issues for which scientific knowledge and consensus are still evolving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time management training for school psychologists.

Describes a program for training school psychologists in time management, which was derived from a behavioral problem-solving framework and can be used by a practitioner either alone or with initial assistance from a supervisor. It consists of 4 steps: orientation to time management, time management problem analysis, plan development and implementation, and plan evaluation. Utilization of the program by 2 school psychology practitioners appears to have increased the amount of time devoted to behavioral counseling and to planning and evaluation of individualized education programs, without decreasing quality of assessment services. The program was judged to be socially valid by 10 outside practitioners. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adults reporting repressed or recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.

An item-cuing directed forgetting task was used to investigate whether women reporting repressed (n?=?13) or recovered (n?=?13) memories of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) exhibit an avoidant encoding style (and resultant impaired memory) for trauma cues relative to women reporting no CSA experience (n?=?15). All participants viewed intermixed trauma (e.g., molested), positive (e.g., confident), and categorized neutral (e.g., mailbox) words on a computer screen and were instructed either to remember or to forget each word. The results provided no support for the hypothesis that people reporting either repressed or recovered memories of CSA are especially adept at forgetting words related to trauma. These groups recalled words they were instructed to remember more often than words they were instructed to forget regardless of whether they were trauma related. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Degrees of repression of sexual abuse memories.

Comments on E. F. Loftus's (see record 1993-37888-001) review of data on patients' recovery of repressed memories of sexual abuse (SA) in psychotherapy. In contrast to J. Briere and J. Conte's (see record 1993-33736-001) finding of self-reported amnesia for abuse in 59% of adults molested as children, only 30% of 105 adults in the present authors' study claimed to have blocked out any recollection of SA. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical characteristics of adults reporting repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse.

The authors assessed women and men who either reported continuous memories of their childhood sexual abuse (CSA, n = 92), reported recovering memories of CSA (n = 38), reported believing they harbored repressed memories of CSA (n = 42), or reported never having been sexually abused (n = 36). Men and women were indistinguishable on all clinical and psychometric measures. The 3 groups that reported abuse scored similarly on measures of anxiety, depression, dissociation, and absorption. These groups also scored higher than the control group. Inconsistent with betrayal trauma theory, recovered memory participants were not more likely to report abuse by a parent or stepparent than were continuous memory participants. Rates of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder did not differ between the continuous and recovered memory groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)